Scalable semantic image retrieval with deep template matching

ABSTRACT

Approaches presented herein provide for semantic data matching, as may be useful for selecting data from a large unlabeled dataset to train a neural network. For an object detection use case, such a process can identify images within an unlabeled set even when an object of interest represents a relatively small portion of an image or there are many other objects in the image. A query image can be processed to extract image features or feature maps from only one or more regions of interest in that image, as may correspond to objects of interest. These features are compared with images in an unlabeled dataset, with similarity scores being calculated between the features of the region(s) of interest and individual images in the unlabeled set. One or more highest scored images can be selected as training images showing objects that are semantically similar to the object in the query image.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationSer. No. 63/111,559, filed Nov. 9, 2020, and entitled “Scalable SemanticImage Retrieval in the Wild With Deep Template Matching,” which ishereby incorporated herein in its entirety and for all purposes.

BACKGROUND

Retrieving images including objects that are semantically similar hasmany practical use cases. One such use case involves the selection ofimages for use in training a neural network for a task such as objectdetection. Automatic dataset mining can involve the determination ofrelevant data from a large-scale pool of unlabeled data. Manual miningat such a large scale may be infeasible, if not at least impractical.Further, the objects of interest in these images may not always be inideal positions, orientations, or under optimal circumstances forcertain training tasks. For example, the objects of interest may be(undesirably) small relative to the size of the images, may be at leastpartially occluded, or may be represented along with many other objectsof similar or different types in these images. Existing semantic imageretrieval methods often focus on mining for larger geographicallandmarks, or require extra labeled data, such as images or image pairswith similar objects, for mining images with generic objects, and arenot well suited for such tasks.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Various embodiments in accordance with the present disclosure will bedescribed with reference to the drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 illustrates image data that can be utilized in a semanticmatching process, according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 2 illustrate an image mining system, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 3 illustrates components of a semantic matching system, accordingto at least one embodiment;

FIG. 4 illustrates a patch wise matching process, according to at leastone embodiment;

FIG. 5 illustrates a process for locating one or more semanticallysimilar images from an unlabeled dataset, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 6 illustrates components of a system for performing semanticfeature matching, according to at least one embodiment;

FIG. 7A illustrates inference and/or training logic, according to atleast one embodiment;

FIG. 7B illustrates inference and/or training logic, according to atleast one embodiment;

FIG. 8 illustrates an example data center system, according to at leastone embodiment;

FIG. 9 illustrates a computer system, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 10 illustrates a computer system, according to at least oneembodiment;

FIG. 11 illustrates at least portions of a graphics processor, accordingto one or more embodiments;

FIG. 12 illustrates at least portions of a graphics processor, accordingto one or more embodiments;

FIG. 13 is an example data flow diagram for an advanced computingpipeline, in accordance with at least one embodiment;

FIG. 14 is a system diagram for an example system for training,adapting, instantiating and deploying machine learning models in anadvanced computing pipeline, in accordance with at least one embodiment;and

FIGS. 15A and 15B illustrate a data flow diagram for a process to traina machine learning model, as well as client-server architecture toenhance annotation tools with pre-trained annotation models, inaccordance with at least one embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Approaches in accordance with various embodiments can provide for theautomated identification or retrieval of images from an unlabeleddataset. In particular, various embodiments can utilize a semanticfeature-based approach to identify images, from a large unlabeleddataset, that include representations of one or more objects that aresemantically similar to one or more objects in a query image. In orderto improve the accuracy of such a process, the features from a queryimage to be used for matching can include only those that correspond tospecific regions of interest within the query image, where a region ofinterest can correspond to a portion of the query image in which arepresentation of an object of interest is located. This can enableaccurate matching even in scenarios or under conditions that aretraditionally challenging for semantic image retrieval approaches, suchas (without limitation): when an object of interest represents only arelatively small portion of a query image, is one of a number of objectsin the query image, or is at least partially obscured, among other suchoptions. Such a scalable semantic image retrieval process can be usedfor various purposes, such as to automatically mine unlabeled data setsfor training images useful for training and testing deep neural networks(DNNs).

FIG. 1 illustrates an example set of image data that can be utilized ina semantic image retrieval process in accordance with variousembodiments. A labeled data set may be deficient for any of a number ofreasons, such as (for example and without limitation): not including asufficient number or variety of objects of a given class of object to berecognized. Accordingly, it can be desirable to attempt to automaticallyidentify and label other images that include representations of thoseobjects and thus can be included in the data set. As mentioned, however,such a task can be challenging to perform accurately without manualintervention using conventional approaches. In this example, a queryimage 100 can be selected or determined that may include one or moreobjects of interest. These objects may include, for example, vehicles102 or pedestrians 104 that are to be identified by a neural networkused for a task such as autonomous vehicle navigation. In at least oneembodiment, this query image 100 may be processed with an objectdetector to identify representations of these objects of interest. Theoutput of this object detector may include a set of image features forthe query image, as well as one or more bounding boxes, or otheridentification mechanisms, identifying portions of the query image 100that correspond to respective objects of interest. For discussionpurposes, the portions of the query image located inside these boundingboxes, or identification mechanisms, will be referred to as regions ofinterest (ROIs), which each include an identified object of interest(00I). Objects of interest may include any objects of one or moreclasses, categories, or types that may be identified based at least inpart upon representative visual features that may be representable in animage. The objects may be considered to be “of interest” at least forthe desire to identify those types of objects in image (or other) data,such as for any of a number of various object recognition-based tasks.

Conventional feature-based image matching techniques typically compareall features of a query image against a set of target images. While thiscan produce acceptable results, such a process can miss several imagesthat represent various objects of interest. For example, consider queryimage 100, which contains many buildings in an urban location, withmultiple vehicles and pedestrians. A conventional image matching processmight only identify other images that also include multiple vehicles andpedestrians in an urban environment, which would provide for a highfeature match score based on features of the entire query image.Further, if the features from the entire query image are used then thelarger objects (at least as represented in the image) will dominate, asthey occupy more image area and will generally have a higher number ofimage features. It may be desirable, however, to identify images thatinclude various objects of interest in other settings, different poses,different locations in the images (e.g., in different traffic lanes), orin different settings or scenes (e.g., urban or highway settings), aswell as under different illumination conditions (e.g., day or night) orother such aspects. For example, consider matching image 140. This imageincludes a couple vehicles, but does not contain representations ofpedestrians and is not located in an urban environment. Therefore, thisimage may not get picked up in a conventional matching process due tonot sufficiently matching the entire query image 100.

Approaches in accordance with various embodiments, however, can utilizefeatures of one or more individual regions of interest within an imageto perform semantic matching. According to various embodiments, a regionof interest will occupy only a portion of the overall image, and mayoccupy only a small portion of that image area with only a few features,which avoids the problem that can result in conventional techniques whenusing features of an entire image where larger objects will dominate,since they occupy more image area and will have a higher number offeatures. For example, an example region of interest 120 from the queryimage can include a representation of a type of vehicle. If onlyfeatures from this region of interest 120 are used for matching, thenmatching image 140 may be identified as a match since there is at leastone region in the image with an object 142 that is semantically similarto the object in the region of interest. Even though an overall matchscore between the two images 100, 140 may be low, there can be a highmatch score generated between the matching image 140 and the region ofinterest 120. Such an approach can help to identify matching images evenwhen every other aspect of the matching image may be different than thequery image.

Similarly, such an approach can help to identify matching images evenwhen an object of interest is only one of a number of objects in animage, or occupies only a small portion of the image. Consider region ofinterest 160, which corresponds to a pedestrian in the query image 100.The pedestrian may make up a small portion of the query image, such asless than 5% of the image area in this example. A pedestrian 182represented in a matching image 180 may occupy an even smallerpercentage. Using a conventional matching approach, this matching image180 may not be identified due to the small portion of the images thatmatch based on the object. Using features only of a region of interest160 for matching, however, allows for an accurate match to thepedestrian 182 in the matching image 180 even though it is only one of anumber of objects in the matching image and occupies only a smallportion of the image. Such an approach can thus provide for much moreaccurate object identification and image selection than priorapproaches. Further, since such an approach can still use identifiedimage features, but use only a subset of the overall image features,such additional accuracy does not come with significant additionalcomplexity or processing capacity requirements.

Approaches in accordance with various embodiments can utilize one ormore algorithms, such as a fast and robust template matching algorithmthat can be utilized in a deep neural network (DNN) feature space. Suchan approach can retrieve semantically-similar images, at the objectlevel, from a large unlabeled pool of data. In at least one embodiment,the regions around one or more objects of interest in a query image canbe determined and projected onto the DNN feature space for use as amatching template. Such an approach enables focusing on the semantics ofthe objects of interest without the need for extra labeled data. Such anapproach can be utilized in the context of dataset mining for fixingfailure cases in object detection DNNs, such as may be used forautonomous vehicle (AV) navigation. Such an approach can also providefor high recall in mining for images with small-sized objects ofinterest, and can be used to retrieve images with one or moresemantically different co-occurring objects of interest.

In at least one embodiment, an object retrieval process can locateimages with objects that are semantically similar to one or more objectsof interest in a query image. Such a fundamental computer vision taskhas many practical applications, as may include geographical landmarkrecognition. As mentioned, such a process can also be used for automaticmining of datasets at an object-level for fixing failure cases, such asfalse negatives or positives in production-level object detection deepneural networks (DNNs). These failure cases occur across differentscenarios and conditions, and are often due to an under-representationof such data in the training dataset. An automatic dataset mining taskfor fixing autonomous vehicle object detection DNN failures, forexample, can involve automatically finding the relevant data withobjects that are semantically similar to the objects of interest in thefailure cases from a large-scale pool of unlabeled data. FIG. 2illustrates an example mining system 200 that can be utilized for such atask. In this example, a set of labeled training data 202 includingidentified objects of interest can be provided as training data to adeep neural network 204. The output can be a set of labeled test data206 with features and regions of interest identified. In at least oneembodiment, a trained object detector can be used to extract featuremaps at certain layers. Some amount of processing may be performed onthese feature maps, such as to reduce noise or remove excess data, andthese maps can then be used as representations of the content of animage at a semantic level.

From this labeled dataset, a set of query images 208 can be selectedwith these identified regions of interest. The query images 208 can thenbe passed to an automatic mining task 212, as may be implemented using arespective system, service, device, application, or process, which mayalso include or utilize at least one neural network. Features from theregions of interest can then be used during automatic mining to performsemantic matching against images in an unlabeled data source 210, suchas a repository or library of images, video, or other such content.Semantic features can also be extracted from the unlabeled data forsemantic matching. To extract this embedding, individual frames can beprocessed using a forward pass through a pre-trained DNN, wherein anembedding or feature map is extracted that characterizes the content ofthat image at a semantic level. The mining task can identify images thathave portions or feature maps that semantically match features of one ormore regions of interest, or feature templates, such as with at least aminimum confidence or match score, and these semantically similar images214 can then be added to the labeled training data set 202 for furthertraining and testing of the neural network 204.

As mentioned, such an automatic dataset mining task can be formulated asa semantic image retrieval problem which takes as input a small set ofquery images (e.g., a few tens of query images) with annotations, suchas bounding box annotations, associated with one or more objects ofinterest in the scene. This task can then locate images from a largepool of unlabeled data that include representations of semanticallysimilar objects. These annotations can form regions of interest (ROIs)in the query images. These ROIs can correspond to objects which a neuralnetwork, such as a production-level DNN for autonomous vehicles,systematically failed to detect. For such a DNN, this may includefailures to detect motorcycles at night, bicycles mounted on cars, andso on. The ROI can be used as a template for searching functions, withdeep features used to represent the template and image search spacethrough a deep template matching (DTM) process.

In at least one embodiment, a DTM process can utilize a fast and robusttemplate-matching algorithm in the DNN feature space that retrievessemantically similar images at the object-level from a large unlabeledpool of data. This can be solved by projecting the region(s) around theobjects of interest in the query image to the DNN feature space for useas a template. In at least one embodiment, a linear time one shotsimilarity score can be computed in the deep feature space. Such acomputation can be relatively inexpensive, even on large data sets, andcan provide flexibility for retrieving multiple semantically-similarobjects without increasing computational complexity. A DTM process canprovide high accuracy, including an ability to provide high recallvalues for queries with one or more objects of interest, or templates,of any size and multiple semantic categories in real-world scenes thatmay include occlusions or heavy clutter. Such a process can also providecomputational efficiency, such as quick mining time on a graphicsprocessing unit (GPU), which can be important for fast experimentalturnaround time in at least some production-level pipelines. In at leastsome embodiments, a DTM process can also precompute the image embeddingsin DNN feature space offline, which can help to increase a speed ofscore determination. The computational complexity of DTM does not dependon the number or semantic category of the object(s) of interest in thequery image. DTM can seamlessly locate multiple objects of one or moresemantic categories co-occurring in a given sample image. An example DTMprocess can also provide for multi-template search in one shot. This caninclude, for example, mining using multiple failures and multipleobjects of interest belonging to different semantic categories, whichcan be performed seamlessly, and in one shot, for the same computationalcomplexity as a single object of interest.

In at least one embodiment, a DTM process can successfully locate oridentify images with semantically similar objects, even when the objectsof interest in the query image are quite small in size (e.g., occupyless than about 0.3% of area in an input 2 MP image), as well as wherethere may be one or more occlusions or heavy scene clutter with multiplekinds of other objects. This might be the case, for example, with imagesof busy streets with many cars and pedestrians in the query andunlabeled pool of images. Conventional methods to solve such a problemare either computationally expensive, manually intensive, or requireadditional labeled training data. Alternatively, a DTM process can becomputationally cheap, can work seamlessly for multiple co-occurringobjects of the same or different semantic category, and does not requireadditional labeled training data.

FIG. 3 illustrates an example end-to-end architecture 300 that can beused for a DTM process in accordance with at least one embodiment. Thisexample system can take, as input, a query image I_(Q) 302 with abounding box around each of one or more objects of interest, where eachbounding box can define a respective region of interest (ROI). Thesystem 300 can also accept as input a set A of unlabeled sample images.In this example, I_(Q) can represent the ROI in the query image. A goalin at least one embodiment is to locate one or more images I_(S) fromthe set A of unlabeled images which have regions semantically similar tothe region of interest I_(Q). For simplicity, I_(Q) can be assumed to bea single query image 304 with a single ROI I_(Q), with I_(S) being asingle sample image. From this input, features can be extractedincluding F_(Q), F_(S)∈R^(wxhxc) for I_(Q) and I_(S) respectively, usinga pre-trained object detector DNN 306. In this example, the dimensionsare denoted as w: width, h: height and c: number of channels. I_(Q) canthen be projected onto F_(Q) to obtain F′_(Q)∈R^(wxhxc). In at least oneembodiment, this can be accomplished by linearly projecting the ROII′_(Q) onto F_(Q) and zeroing out features that do not have a one-to-onecorrespondence with I_(Q). It can be noted that F_(Q) can be a finalrepresentation of the template that is used to compute similarity withall F_(S)∈A (features of the unlabeled dataset). Before using thesefeatures for computing similarity, the features can be L2 normalizedalong the channel dimension c, which can have various benefits asdiscussed elsewhere herein.

The template 308 from the query image 302 can then be used with thefeature map 310 of the sample image to generate a similarity matrix S312. This similarity matrix 312 can then be used to generate asimilarity score 314 between the query template 308 and the sample imagefeature map 310. FIG. 4 illustrates a view of a patch wise similarityscore determination process 400 that can be used for such purposes.Feature tensors F_(Q) and F_(S) can be considered, where each spatiallocation is denoted by F′_(Q)[i,j] and F_(S)[x,y] respectively, asillustrated in FIG. 4, which are generated from a query image patch 402and sample image patch 404, respectively. These tensors can be definedto be tensors of depth c as a patch since they map to a certain region(e.g., patch) in the original image. Hence, both F′_(Q) and F_(S) havew*h patch wise feature vectors, each of length c. Patch wise cosinesimilarity scores 408 can then be calculated between F′_(Q′) and F_(S)by, for example, computing the similarity between F′_(Q) [i,j] andF_(S)[x,y] for all values of x, i∈[0,w−1] and y,j∈[0,h−1]. It can benoted that F′_(Q) [i,j], F_(S)[x,y]∈R^(lxc). The similarity scorebetween the zeroed patches in F_(Q) and F_(S) need not be computed asthis does not affect the final score.

In at least one embodiment, a goal is to find the score of the bestmatching sample patch feature for each query patch feature F′_(Q) [i,j],at spatial location (i, j). To compute this score, a cosine similarityalgorithm can be used due at least in part to its computationalefficiency. In at least one embodiment, a score can be calculatedbetween every patch in the query image and every patch in the sampleimage, and the cosine similarity computed along the channel dimension.This results in a four dimensional patch wise cosine similarity tensorS∈R^(wxhwxh) which can be given by:

${{{Sim}\left( {F_{S},F_{Q^{\prime}}} \right)}\left\lbrack {x,y,i,j} \right\rbrack} = \frac{{F_{S}\left\lbrack {x,y} \right\rbrack} \cdot {F_{Q^{\prime}}\left\lbrack {i,j} \right\rbrack}}{{{F_{S}\left\lbrack {x,y} \right\rbrack}}_{2} \cdot {{F_{Q^{\prime}}\left\lbrack {i,j} \right\rbrack}}_{2}}$

A larger Sim(F_(S), F_(Q′))[x, y, i, j] value indicates that samplepatch feature F_(S)[x,y] and query patch feature F_(Q′)[i,j] are moresimilar to each other. It can be noted that the tensor S[x, y, :, :]stores similarity scores between sample patch feature F_(S)[x,y] and allquery patch features, and S[:, :, i, j] stores similarity scores betweenquery patch feature F_(Q′)[i,j] and all sample patch features.

Computing S can be highly efficient for at least a couple differentreasons. For example, both F_(Q′) and F_(S) can be L2 normalized suchthat:

|F _(S)[x,y]|₂ ·|F _(Q′)[i,j]|₂=1

Hence, the cosine similarity can boil down to computing a dot productalong the channel dimension, which can be highly parallelizable on theprocessor (e.g., GPU and/or CPU) using off the shelf operations, such astf.tensordot or np.tensordot. Further, F′_(Q) in this example has allzeroes except the ROI which makes it sparse, thereby enabling advantagesof sparse matric multiplications. It can also be noted that since F′_(Q)and F_(S) are L2 normalized, both Euclidean and cosine similarity canlead to same (or similar) ranking of the patch wise feature scores. Inat least one embodiment, cosine similarity can be utilized due at leastto its computation efficiency as explained above.

In at least one embodiment, score maps may be computed by averaging overthese best matched cosine similarity scores. This can result in twoscore maps M_(S) and M_(Q′) which can be computed as follows:

M _(S)=max(S,axis=(2,3))

M _(Q′)=max(S,axis=(0,1))

Each element of M_(S)[x,y] indicates the best matching score foundbetween the patch feature F_(S)[x,y] and any patch feature in F′_(Q).Similarly, each element of M′_(Q)[i,j] indicates the best matching scorefound between the patch feature F′_(Q)[i,j] and any patch feature inF_(S). The final score between S and Q can be computed in at least threeways, as may be given by:

Score(S,Q)=Mean(M _(Q′))

Score(S,Q)=Mean(M _(S))

${{Score}\left( {S,Q} \right)} = \frac{{{Mean}\left( M_{S} \right)} + {{Mean}\left( M_{Q^{\prime}} \right)}}{2}$

Note that the final score will be biased towards larger ROI, especiallyfor cases where the query image template has multiple objects ofdifferent sizes and semantic categories. To counter this, the finalscore map ROI regions corresponding to each of the queries can befurther normalized by the area of the ROI in the feature map.

In order to compute the score of the best matching sample patch featurefor each query patch feature, a max function can be used over the cosinesimilarity scores stored in S. This gives a score map M′_(Q)∈R^(wxh)which may be given by:

$M_{Q}^{\prime} = \frac{\max\limits_{{axis} = {({0,1})}}{S\left( {F_{S},F_{Q}^{\prime}} \right)}}{A_{Q}^{\prime}}$

where A′_(Q)∈R^(wxh) is a normalization constant that is proportional tothe area of the projected ROI(s) at each spatial location in the featurespace F′_(Q). M′_(Q) can be biased towards objects with larger ROIs incases where the query image template has multiple ROIs with objects ofdifferent sizes occupying different ROI areas. This can be counteredwith the normalization constant A′_(Q). Each element of M′_(Q) [i,j],where i∈[0, w−1] and j∈[0, h−1], indicates the best matching score foundbetween the patch feature F′_(Q)[i,j] and any patch feature in F_(S),normalized by the area of the ROI at spatial location (i,j), which isdenoted by A′_(Q) [i,j].

Using the score map M′_(Q), a final score can be computed between queryimage I_(Q) and sample image I_(S) by averaging over the best patch wisesimilarity scores, as may be given in at least one embodiment by:

Score(I _(Q) ,I _(S))=Mean(M′ _(Q))

while other score definitions can be used as well as discussed andsuggested elsewhere herein. It can be noted that in Score(I_(Q),I_(S)),spatial relationships across features within the template are notexploited. Computing scores that exploit spatial relationshipsexplicitly tend to have higher runtime complexity while not yieldingsignificant retrieval recall gains based on our empiricalexperimentation. Score map M′_(Q) can accurately match the semantics ofthe region of interest in the query image to the object in the sampleimage.

In one example, an internal research dataset was used with 465 k labeledimages and another dataset with 2.2M unlabeled night-time images. Asmall initial set of 36 representative query images was selected, wherethe ROI in each query image corresponds to a motorcycle. These querymotorcycles are chosen to have diverse characteristics such as pose,size, orientation, lane location, and headlights (on/off). For fairness,disjoint driving sessions of the dataset and the query images wasensured. A one-stage object detector was used that is based on aUNet-backbone, pre-trained on a 900 k labeled dataset to detect theclasses: ‘car’, ‘truck’, ‘pedestrian’, ‘bicycle’ and ‘motorcycle’. Theobject detector is trained to generalize over diverse scenarios thatvary in lighting (day and night), weather conditions, illumination,occlusion and camera distance, as non-limiting examples. In thisexample, an image is represented by extracting features F∈R^(wxhxc) fromthe penultimate layer of this pre-trained object detector DNN. To reducestorage costs, the embedding was downsized by adding a maxpool layer.For comparison with a baseline approach, an image can be represented byflattening F using global average pooling such that F∈R^(xc).

In this set of experiments an example DTM approach was evaluated andcompared with other baseline methodologies. The task is to findsemantically similar motorcycles in a labeled dataset with 465 k imagesthat were a part of the training data for the object detection model.This dataset has 10.28% images with at least one motorcycle, which isused as an upper bound for random selection. The experiment evaluatedboth the methods using Top-N recall where a mined image is counted as atrue positive if it has at least one motorcycle. In this example, DTMoutperformed the baseline and random matching approaches by asignificant margin, with good recall across the entire range of thequery ROI area. The recall for the baseline approach degradessignificantly for <5% ROI area. DTM avoids such degradation byperforming a patch wise similarity only using the ROI area from thequery image. The example DTM approach produces sharp and localizedheatmaps denoting its ability to accurately mine semantically similarobjects. Since the baseline method uses a globally averaged flatembedding it cannot focus on the ROI. Evaluations on unlabeled dataprovided similarly strong results.

As mentioned, such an approach can be extended to accommodate querieswith multiple regions of interest at no extra computation cost. This canbe done in at least one embodiment by projecting all the ROIs in thequery image onto the query feature map as discussed above. The scoremaps can be normalized using the area of each object so that theretrieved images are not biased towards larger objects. For anautonomous vehicle application, the performance of DTM can be evaluatedfor retrieving semantically similar images with a motorcycle and abicycle.

FIG. 5 illustrates an example process 500 for performing deep templatematching that can be utilized in accordance with various embodiments. Itshould be understood that for this and other processes presented hereinthat there can be additional, fewer, or alternative steps performed insimilar or alternative orders, or at least partially in parallel, withinthe scope of the various embodiments unless otherwise specificallystated. Further, while image data is used as an example it should beunderstood that other types of data can be used with such a process aswell, as discussed and suggested elsewhere herein. In this example, aquery image is selected 502 from a set of labeled data, such as a set oftraining images to be used to train and test a neural network. Theselected query image as labeled includes a representation of at leastone object of interest, such as an object of an identified class (e.g.,vehicle or person). A set of semantic features (or embedding vectors,etc.) can be extracted 504, or otherwise determined, for the queryimage. This can include identifying semantic features in one or moreregions of interest in the query image that include representations ofone or more objects of interest. The features from each such region ofinterest can be used to generate a respective feature template. Theregions of interest may represent a small portion of the overall imagesize, and there may be multiple regions of interest in a given queryimage. In some embodiments, a subset of these regions may be utilizedfor matching.

The feature template(s) can then be compared 506 against a plurality ofimages contained within a set of unlabeled data, which may include avery large collection of images. The template(s) can be compared againstsemantic features extracted from the plurality of images. As part of thecomparison, patch wise similarity scores can be calculated 508 forindividual images with respect to individual matching templates. Asmentioned, these can be cosine or Euclidian similarity scores, amongother such options. One or more of these unlabeled images can beselected 510 as including a representation of at least one object ofinterest, based at least in part upon these calculated similarityscores. There may be multiple similarity scores calculated for anunlabeled image with respect to various templates, and an image may beselected based upon a highest such similarity score. The selection maybe based upon a number of highest scored images, images with asimilarity score above a similarity threshold, or another such approach.Selected images having representations of one or more objects ofinterest can then be added 512 to the set of labeled data, such as foruse in training and testing a neural network. This can help to identifyobjects that may be relatively small in an image or located in imageswith other objects, such as bikes on the backs or tops of vehicles inurban scenes.

As mentioned, such a process an provide for accurate semantic objectretrieval in the wild by using deep features. This can be utilized inthe context of automatic dataset mining at an object-level for fixingfailures, such as false negatives and positives, in a DNN-based objectdetector. These failure cases typically have unusual characteristics interms of scale, pose, occlusion and tend to be absent orunder-represented in the DNN training dataset. Fixing these failurecases often involves mining for semantically similar objects from alarge pool of unlabeled data. A method as presented in FIG. 5, however,can focus on the semantics of the objects of interest by projecting themonto the DNN feature space, and can have high recall even when theobject is small-sized, amid occlusion and heavy scene clutter. Such amethod can also work seamlessly for multiple co-occurring objects in oneor more semantic categories for object-level retrieval. Unlike othermethods, it does not require extra labeled training data. Such a methodcan utilize a fast and robust dot-product based template matchingprocedure for automatic data mining.

As an example, FIG. 6 illustrates an example network configuration 600that can be used to provide or generate content. In at least oneembodiment, a client device 602 can generate content for a session usingcomponents of a content application 604 on client device 602 and datastored locally on that client device. In at least one embodiment, acontent application 624 (e.g., an image generation or editingapplication) executing on content server 620 (e.g., a cloud server oredge server) may initiate a session associated with at least clientdevice 602, as may utilize a session manager and user data stored in auser database 634, and can cause content 632 to be determined by acontent manager 626 and rendered using a rendering engine, if needed forthis type of content or platform, and transmitted to client device 602using an appropriate transmission manager 622 to send by download,streaming, or another such transmission channel. The content server 620can also include one or more training modules 630 for training acomponent, network, or pipeline. The server 620 may include a matchingcomponent 628 for identifying additional data to be used in training ortesting that network. In at least one embodiment, client device 602receiving this content can provide this content to a correspondingcontent application 604, which provide at least some of this content forpresentation via client device 602, such as image or video contentthrough a display 606 and audio, such as sounds and music, through atleast one audio playback device 608, such as speakers or headphones. Forlive video content captured by one or more cameras, for example, such arendering engine may not be needed, unless used to augment that videocontent in some way.

In at least one embodiment, at least some of this content may already bestored on, rendered on, or accessible to client device 602 such thattransmission over network 640 is not required for at least that portionof content, such as where that content may have been previouslydownloaded or stored locally on a hard drive or optical disk. In atleast one embodiment, a transmission mechanism such as data streamingcan be used to transfer this content from server 620, or contentdatabase 634, to client device 602. In at least one embodiment, at leasta portion of this content can be obtained or streamed from anothersource, such as a third party content service 660 that may also includea content application 662 for generating or providing content. In atleast one embodiment, portions of this functionality can be performedusing multiple computing devices, or multiple processors within one ormore computing devices, such as may include a combination of CPUs andGPUs.

In at least one embodiment, content application 624 includes a contentmanager 626 that can determine or analyze content before this content istransmitted to client device 602. In at least one embodiment, contentmanager 626 can also include, or work with, other components that areable to generate, modify, or enhance content to be provided. In at leastone embodiment, this can include a rendering engine for rendering imageor video content. In at least one embodiment, an image, video, or scenegraph generation component 628 can be used to generate a scene graph,which can be used by the content application 624 on the server or thecontent application 604 on the client device to generate image, video,or other media content. In at least one embodiment, an enhancementcomponent 630, which can also include a neural network, can perform oneor more enhancements on this content, as discussed and suggested herein.In at least one embodiment, content manager 626 can cause this contentto be transmitted to client device 602. In at least one embodiment, acontent application 604 on client device 602 may also include componentssuch as a template matching process 612, or content generation module,such that any or all of this functionality can additionally, oralternatively, be performed on client device 602. In at least oneembodiment, a content application 662 on a third party content servicesystem 660 can also include such functionality. In at least oneembodiment, locations where at least some of this functionality isperformed may be configurable, or may depend upon factors such as a typeof client device 602 or availability of a network connection withappropriate bandwidth, among other such factors. In at least oneembodiment, a system for content generation can include any appropriatecombination of hardware and software in one or more locations. In atleast one embodiment, generated image or video content of one or moreresolutions can also be provided, or made available, to other clientdevices 650, such as for download or streaming from a media sourcestoring a copy of that image or video content. In at least oneembodiment, this may include transmitting images of game content for amultiplayer game, where different client devices may display thatcontent at different resolutions, including one or moresuper-resolutions.

In this example, these client devices can include any appropriatecomputing devices, as may include a desktop computer, notebook computer,set-top box, streaming device, gaming console, smartphone, tabletcomputer, VR headset, AR goggles, wearable computer, or a smarttelevision. Each client device can submit a request across at least onewired or wireless network, as may include the Internet, an Ethernet, alocal area network (LAN), or a cellular network, among other suchoptions. In this example, these requests can be submitted to an addressassociated with a cloud provider, who may operate or control one or moreelectronic resources in a cloud provider environment, such as mayinclude a data center or server farm. In at least one embodiment, therequest may be received or processed by at least one edge server, thatsits on a network edge and is outside at least one security layerassociated with the cloud provider environment. In this way, latency canbe reduced by enabling the client devices to interact with servers thatare in closer proximity, while also improving security of resources inthe cloud provider environment.

In at least one embodiment, such a system can be used for performinggraphical rendering operations. In other embodiments, such a system canbe used for other purposes, such as for providing image or video contentto test or validate autonomous machine applications, or for performingdeep learning operations. In at least one embodiment, such a system canbe implemented using an edge device, or may incorporate one or moreVirtual Machines (VMs). In at least one embodiment, such a system can beimplemented at least partially in a data center or at least partiallyusing cloud computing resources.

Inference and Training Logic

FIG. 7A illustrates inference and/or training logic 715 used to performinferencing and/or training operations associated with one or moreembodiments. Details regarding inference and/or training logic 715 areprovided below in conjunction with FIGS. 7A and/or 7B.

In at least one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 715 mayinclude, without limitation, code and/or data storage 701 to storeforward and/or output weight and/or input/output data, and/or otherparameters to configure neurons or layers of a neural network trainedand/or used for inferencing in aspects of one or more embodiments. In atleast one embodiment, training logic 715 may include, or be coupled tocode and/or data storage 701 to store graph code or other software tocontrol timing and/or order, in which weight and/or other parameterinformation is to be loaded to configure, logic, including integerand/or floating point units (collectively, arithmetic logic units(ALUs). In at least one embodiment, code, such as graph code, loadsweight or other parameter information into processor ALUs based on anarchitecture of a neural network to which the code corresponds. In atleast one embodiment, code and/or data storage 701 stores weightparameters and/or input/output data of each layer of a neural networktrained or used in conjunction with one or more embodiments duringforward propagation of input/output data and/or weight parameters duringtraining and/or inferencing using aspects of one or more embodiments. Inat least one embodiment, any portion of code and/or data storage 701 maybe included with other on-chip or off-chip data storage, including aprocessor's L1, L2, or L3 cache or system memory.

In at least one embodiment, any portion of code and/or data storage 701may be internal or external to one or more processors or other hardwarelogic devices or circuits. In at least one embodiment, code and/or codeand/or data storage 701 may be cache memory, dynamic randomlyaddressable memory (“DRAM”), static randomly addressable memory(“SRAM”), non-volatile memory (e.g., Flash memory), or other storage. Inat least one embodiment, choice of whether code and/or code and/or datastorage 701 is internal or external to a processor, for example, orcomprised of DRAM, SRAM, Flash or some other storage type may depend onavailable storage on-chip versus off-chip, latency requirements oftraining and/or inferencing functions being performed, batch size ofdata used in inferencing and/or training of a neural network, or somecombination of these factors.

In at least one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 715 mayinclude, without limitation, a code and/or data storage 705 to storebackward and/or output weight and/or input/output data corresponding toneurons or layers of a neural network trained and/or used forinferencing in aspects of one or more embodiments. In at least oneembodiment, code and/or data storage 705 stores weight parameters and/orinput/output data of each layer of a neural network trained or used inconjunction with one or more embodiments during backward propagation ofinput/output data and/or weight parameters during training and/orinferencing using aspects of one or more embodiments. In at least oneembodiment, training logic 715 may include, or be coupled to code and/ordata storage 705 to store graph code or other software to control timingand/or order, in which weight and/or other parameter information is tobe loaded to configure, logic, including integer and/or floating pointunits (collectively, arithmetic logic units (ALUs). In at least oneembodiment, code, such as graph code, loads weight or other parameterinformation into processor ALUs based on an architecture of a neuralnetwork to which the code corresponds. In at least one embodiment, anyportion of code and/or data storage 705 may be included with otheron-chip or off-chip data storage, including a processor's L1, L2, or L3cache or system memory. In at least one embodiment, any portion of codeand/or data storage 705 may be internal or external to on one or moreprocessors or other hardware logic devices or circuits. In at least oneembodiment, code and/or data storage 705 may be cache memory, DRAM,SRAM, non-volatile memory (e.g., Flash memory), or other storage. In atleast one embodiment, choice of whether code and/or data storage 705 isinternal or external to a processor, for example, or comprised of DRAM,SRAM, Flash or some other storage type may depend on available storageon-chip versus off-chip, latency requirements of training and/orinferencing functions being performed, batch size of data used ininferencing and/or training of a neural network, or some combination ofthese factors.

In at least one embodiment, code and/or data storage 701 and code and/ordata storage 705 may be separate storage structures. In at least oneembodiment, code and/or data storage 701 and code and/or data storage705 may be same storage structure. In at least one embodiment, codeand/or data storage 701 and code and/or data storage 705 may bepartially same storage structure and partially separate storagestructures. In at least one embodiment, any portion of code and/or datastorage 701 and code and/or data storage 705 may be included with otheron-chip or off-chip data storage, including a processor's L1, L2, or L3cache or system memory.

In at least one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 715 mayinclude, without limitation, one or more arithmetic logic unit(s)(“ALU(s)”) 710, including integer and/or floating point units, toperform logical and/or mathematical operations based, at least in parton, or indicated by, training and/or inference code (e.g., graph code),a result of which may produce activations (e.g., output values fromlayers or neurons within a neural network) stored in an activationstorage 720 that are functions of input/output and/or weight parameterdata stored in code and/or data storage 701 and/or code and/or datastorage 705. In at least one embodiment, activations stored inactivation storage 720 are generated according to linear algebraic andor matrix-based mathematics performed by ALU(s) 710 in response toperforming instructions or other code, wherein weight values stored incode and/or data storage 705 and/or code and/or data storage 701 areused as operands along with other values, such as bias values, gradientinformation, momentum values, or other parameters or hyperparameters,any or all of which may be stored in code and/or data storage 705 orcode and/or data storage 701 or another storage on or off-chip.

In at least one embodiment, ALU(s) 710 are included within one or moreprocessors or other hardware logic devices or circuits, whereas inanother embodiment, ALU(s) 710 may be external to a processor or otherhardware logic device or circuit that uses them (e.g., a co-processor).In at least one embodiment, ALUs 710 may be included within aprocessor's execution units or otherwise within a bank of ALUsaccessible by a processor's execution units either within same processoror distributed between different processors of different types (e.g.,central processing units, graphics processing units, fixed functionunits, etc.). In at least one embodiment, code and/or data storage 701,code and/or data storage 705, and activation storage 720 may be on sameprocessor or other hardware logic device or circuit, whereas in anotherembodiment, they may be in different processors or other hardware logicdevices or circuits, or some combination of same and differentprocessors or other hardware logic devices or circuits. In at least oneembodiment, any portion of activation storage 720 may be included withother on-chip or off-chip data storage, including a processor's L1, L2,or L3 cache or system memory. Furthermore, inferencing and/or trainingcode may be stored with other code accessible to a processor or otherhardware logic or circuit and fetched and/or processed using aprocessor's fetch, decode, scheduling, execution, retirement and/orother logical circuits.

In at least one embodiment, activation storage 720 may be cache memory,DRAM, SRAM, non-volatile memory (e.g., Flash memory), or other storage.In at least one embodiment, activation storage 720 may be completely orpartially within or external to one or more processors or other logicalcircuits. In at least one embodiment, choice of whether activationstorage 720 is internal or external to a processor, for example, orcomprised of DRAM, SRAM, Flash or some other storage type may depend onavailable storage on-chip versus off-chip, latency requirements oftraining and/or inferencing functions being performed, batch size ofdata used in inferencing and/or training of a neural network, or somecombination of these factors. In at least one embodiment, inferenceand/or training logic 715 illustrated in FIG. 7a may be used inconjunction with an application-specific integrated circuit (“ASIC”),such as Tensorflow® Processing Unit from Google, an inference processingunit (IPU) from Graphcore™, or a Nervana® (e.g., “Lake Crest”) processorfrom Intel Corp. In at least one embodiment, inference and/or traininglogic 715 illustrated in FIG. 7a may be used in conjunction with centralprocessing unit (“CPU”) hardware, graphics processing unit (“GPU”)hardware or other hardware, such as field programmable gate arrays(“FPGAs”).

FIG. 7b illustrates inference and/or training logic 715, according to atleast one or more embodiments. In at least one embodiment, inferenceand/or training logic 715 may include, without limitation, hardwarelogic in which computational resources are dedicated or otherwiseexclusively used in conjunction with weight values or other informationcorresponding to one or more layers of neurons within a neural network.In at least one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 715illustrated in FIG. 7b may be used in conjunction with anapplication-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), such as Tensorflow®Processing Unit from Google, an inference processing unit (IPU) fromGraphcore™, or a Nervana® (e.g., “Lake Crest”) processor from IntelCorp. In at least one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 715illustrated in FIG. 7b may be used in conjunction with centralprocessing unit (CPU) hardware, graphics processing unit (GPU) hardwareor other hardware, such as field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). In atleast one embodiment, inference and/or training logic 715 includes,without limitation, code and/or data storage 701 and code and/or datastorage 705, which may be used to store code (e.g., graph code), weightvalues and/or other information, including bias values, gradientinformation, momentum values, and/or other parameter or hyperparameterinformation. In at least one embodiment illustrated in FIG. 7b , each ofcode and/or data storage 701 and code and/or data storage 705 isassociated with a dedicated computational resource, such ascomputational hardware 702 and computational hardware 706, respectively.In at least one embodiment, each of computational hardware 702 andcomputational hardware 706 comprises one or more ALUs that performmathematical functions, such as linear algebraic functions, only oninformation stored in code and/or data storage 701 and code and/or datastorage 705, respectively, result of which is stored in activationstorage 720.

In at least one embodiment, each of code and/or data storage 701 and 705and corresponding computational hardware 702 and 706, respectively,correspond to different layers of a neural network, such that resultingactivation from one “storage/computational pair 701/702” of code and/ordata storage 701 and computational hardware 702 is provided as an inputto “storage/computational pair 705/706” of code and/or data storage 705and computational hardware 706, in order to mirror conceptualorganization of a neural network. In at least one embodiment, each ofstorage/computational pairs 701/702 and 705/706 may correspond to morethan one neural network layer. In at least one embodiment, additionalstorage/computation pairs (not shown) subsequent to or in parallel withstorage computation pairs 701/702 and 705/706 may be included ininference and/or training logic 715.

Data Center

FIG. 8 illustrates an example data center 800, in which at least oneembodiment may be used. In at least one embodiment, data center 800includes a data center infrastructure layer 810, a framework layer 820,a software layer 830, and an application layer 840.

In at least one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 8, data centerinfrastructure layer 810 may include a resource orchestrator 812,grouped computing resources 814, and node computing resources (“nodeC.R.s”) 816(1)-816(N), where “N” represents any whole, positive integer.In at least one embodiment, node C.R.s 816(1)-816(N) may include, butare not limited to, any number of central processing units (“CPUs”) orother processors (including accelerators, field programmable gate arrays(FPGAs), graphics processors, etc.), memory devices (e.g., dynamicread-only memory), storage devices (e.g., solid state or disk drives),network input/output (“NW I/O”) devices, network switches, virtualmachines (“VMs”), power modules, and cooling modules, etc. In at leastone embodiment, one or more node C.R.s from among node C.R.s816(1)-816(N) may be a server having one or more of above-mentionedcomputing resources.

In at least one embodiment, grouped computing resources 814 may includeseparate groupings of node C.R.s housed within one or more racks (notshown), or many racks housed in data centers at various geographicallocations (also not shown). Separate groupings of node C.R.s withingrouped computing resources 814 may include grouped compute, network,memory or storage resources that may be configured or allocated tosupport one or more workloads. In at least one embodiment, several nodeC.R.s including CPUs or processors may grouped within one or more racksto provide compute resources to support one or more workloads. In atleast one embodiment, one or more racks may also include any number ofpower modules, cooling modules, and network switches, in anycombination.

In at least one embodiment, resource orchestrator 812 may configure orotherwise control one or more node C.R.s 816(1)-816(N) and/or groupedcomputing resources 814. In at least one embodiment, resourceorchestrator 812 may include a software design infrastructure (“SDI”)management entity for data center 800. In at least one embodiment,resource orchestrator may include hardware, software or some combinationthereof.

In at least one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 8, framework layer 820includes a job scheduler 822, a configuration manager 824, a resourcemanager 826 and a distributed file system 828. In at least oneembodiment, framework layer 820 may include a framework to supportsoftware 832 of software layer 830 and/or one or more application(s) 842of application layer 840. In at least one embodiment, software 832 orapplication(s) 842 may respectively include web-based service softwareor applications, such as those provided by Amazon Web Services, GoogleCloud and Microsoft Azure. In at least one embodiment, framework layer820 may be, but is not limited to, a type of free and open-sourcesoftware web application framework such as Apache Spark™ (hereinafter“Spark”) that may utilize distributed file system 828 for large-scaledata processing (e.g., “big data”). In at least one embodiment, jobscheduler 822 may include a Spark driver to facilitate scheduling ofworkloads supported by various layers of data center 800. In at leastone embodiment, configuration manager 824 may be capable of configuringdifferent layers such as software layer 830 and framework layer 820including Spark and distributed file system 828 for supportinglarge-scale data processing. In at least one embodiment, resourcemanager 826 may be capable of managing clustered or grouped computingresources mapped to or allocated for support of distributed file system828 and job scheduler 822. In at least one embodiment, clustered orgrouped computing resources may include grouped computing resource 814at data center infrastructure layer 810. In at least one embodiment,resource manager 826 may coordinate with resource orchestrator 812 tomanage these mapped or allocated computing resources.

In at least one embodiment, software 832 included in software layer 830may include software used by at least portions of node C.R.s816(1)-816(N), grouped computing resources 814, and/or distributed filesystem 828 of framework layer 820. The one or more types of software mayinclude, but are not limited to, Internet web page search software,e-mail virus scan software, database software, and streaming videocontent software.

In at least one embodiment, application(s) 842 included in applicationlayer 840 may include one or more types of applications used by at leastportions of node C.R.s 816(1)-816(N), grouped computing resources 814,and/or distributed file system 828 of framework layer 820. One or moretypes of applications may include, but are not limited to, any number ofa genomics application, a cognitive compute, and a machine learningapplication, including training or inferencing software, machinelearning framework software (e.g., PyTorch, TensorFlow, Caffe, etc.) orother machine learning applications used in conjunction with one or moreembodiments.

In at least one embodiment, any of configuration manager 824, resourcemanager 826, and resource orchestrator 812 may implement any number andtype of self-modifying actions based on any amount and type of dataacquired in any technically feasible fashion. In at least oneembodiment, self-modifying actions may relieve a data center operator ofdata center 800 from making possibly bad configuration decisions andpossibly avoiding underutilized and/or poor performing portions of adata center.

In at least one embodiment, data center 800 may include tools, services,software or other resources to train one or more machine learning modelsor predict or infer information using one or more machine learningmodels according to one or more embodiments described herein. Forexample, in at least one embodiment, a machine learning model may betrained by calculating weight parameters according to a neural networkarchitecture using software and computing resources described above withrespect to data center 800. In at least one embodiment, trained machinelearning models corresponding to one or more neural networks may be usedto infer or predict information using resources described above withrespect to data center 800 by using weight parameters calculated throughone or more training techniques described herein.

In at least one embodiment, data center may use CPUs,application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), GPUs, FPGAs, or otherhardware to perform training and/or inferencing using above-describedresources. Moreover, one or more software and/or hardware resourcesdescribed above may be configured as a service to allow users to trainor performing inferencing of information, such as image recognition,speech recognition, or other artificial intelligence services.

Inference and/or training logic 715 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 715 are provided belowin conjunction with FIGS. 7A and/or 7B. In at least one embodiment,inference and/or training logic 715 may be used in system FIG. 8 forinferencing or predicting operations based, at least in part, on weightparameters calculated using neural network training operations, neuralnetwork functions and/or architectures, or neural network use casesdescribed herein.

Such components can be used to identify unlabeled images that includerepresentations of objects of interest using a semantic matchingprocess.

Computer Systems

FIG. 9 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary computer system,which may be a system with interconnected devices and components, asystem-on-a-chip (SOC) or some combination thereof 900 formed with aprocessor that may include execution units to execute an instruction,according to at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment,computer system 900 may include, without limitation, a component, suchas a processor 902 to employ execution units including logic to performalgorithms for process data, in accordance with present disclosure, suchas in embodiment described herein. In at least one embodiment, computersystem 900 may include processors, such as PENTIUM® Processor family,Xeon™, Itanium®, XScale™ and/or StrongARM™, Intel® Core™, or Intel®Nervana™ microprocessors available from Intel Corporation of SantaClara, Calif., although other systems (including PCs having othermicroprocessors, engineering workstations, set-top boxes and like) mayalso be used. In at least one embodiment, computer system 900 mayexecute a version of WINDOWS' operating system available from MicrosoftCorporation of Redmond, Wash., although other operating systems (UNIXand Linux for example), embedded software, and/or graphical userinterfaces, may also be used.

Embodiments may be used in other devices such as handheld devices andembedded applications. Some examples of handheld devices includecellular phones, Internet Protocol devices, digital cameras, personaldigital assistants (“PDAs”), and handheld PCs. In at least oneembodiment, embedded applications may include a microcontroller, adigital signal processor (“DSP”), system on a chip, network computers(“NetPCs”), set-top boxes, network hubs, wide area network (“WAN”)switches, or any other system that may perform one or more instructionsin accordance with at least one embodiment.

In at least one embodiment, computer system 900 may include, withoutlimitation, processor 902 that may include, without limitation, one ormore execution units 908 to perform machine learning model trainingand/or inferencing according to techniques described herein. In at leastone embodiment, computer system 900 is a single processor desktop orserver system, but in another embodiment computer system 900 may be amultiprocessor system. In at least one embodiment, processor 902 mayinclude, without limitation, a complex instruction set computer (“CISC”)microprocessor, a reduced instruction set computing (“RISC”)microprocessor, a very long instruction word (“VLIW”) microprocessor, aprocessor implementing a combination of instruction sets, or any otherprocessor device, such as a digital signal processor, for example. In atleast one embodiment, processor 902 may be coupled to a processor bus910 that may transmit data signals between processor 902 and othercomponents in computer system 900.

In at least one embodiment, processor 902 may include, withoutlimitation, a Level 1 (“L1”) internal cache memory (“cache”) 904. In atleast one embodiment, processor 902 may have a single internal cache ormultiple levels of internal cache. In at least one embodiment, cachememory may reside external to processor 902. Other embodiments may alsoinclude a combination of both internal and external caches depending onparticular implementation and needs. In at least one embodiment,register file 906 may store different types of data in various registersincluding, without limitation, integer registers, floating pointregisters, status registers, and instruction pointer register.

In at least one embodiment, execution unit 908, including, withoutlimitation, logic to perform integer and floating point operations, alsoresides in processor 902. In at least one embodiment, processor 902 mayalso include a microcode (“ucode”) read only memory (“ROM”) that storesmicrocode for certain macro instructions. In at least one embodiment,execution unit 908 may include logic to handle a packed instruction set909. In at least one embodiment, by including packed instruction set 909in an instruction set of a general-purpose processor 902, along withassociated circuitry to execute instructions, operations used by manymultimedia applications may be performed using packed data in ageneral-purpose processor 902. In one or more embodiments, manymultimedia applications may be accelerated and executed more efficientlyby using full width of a processor's data bus for performing operationson packed data, which may eliminate need to transfer smaller units ofdata across processor's data bus to perform one or more operations onedata element at a time.

In at least one embodiment, execution unit 908 may also be used inmicrocontrollers, embedded processors, graphics devices, DSPs, and othertypes of logic circuits. In at least one embodiment, computer system 900may include, without limitation, a memory 920. In at least oneembodiment, memory 920 may be implemented as a Dynamic Random AccessMemory (“DRAM”) device, a Static Random Access Memory (“SRAM”) device,flash memory device, or other memory device. In at least one embodiment,memory 920 may store instruction(s) 919 and/or data 921 represented bydata signals that may be executed by processor 902.

In at least one embodiment, system logic chip may be coupled toprocessor bus 910 and memory 920. In at least one embodiment, systemlogic chip may include, without limitation, a memory controller hub(“MCH”) 916, and processor 902 may communicate with MCH 916 viaprocessor bus 910. In at least one embodiment, MCH 916 may provide ahigh bandwidth memory path 918 to memory 920 for instruction and datastorage and for storage of graphics commands, data and textures. In atleast one embodiment, MCH 916 may direct data signals between processor902, memory 920, and other components in computer system 900 and tobridge data signals between processor bus 910, memory 920, and a systemI/O 922. In at least one embodiment, system logic chip may provide agraphics port for coupling to a graphics controller. In at least oneembodiment, MCH 916 may be coupled to memory 920 through a highbandwidth memory path 918 and graphics/video card 912 may be coupled toMCH 916 through an Accelerated Graphics Port (“AGP”) interconnect 914.

In at least one embodiment, computer system 900 may use system I/O 922that is a proprietary hub interface bus to couple MCH 916 to I/Ocontroller hub (“ICH”) 930. In at least one embodiment, ICH 930 mayprovide direct connections to some I/O devices via a local I/O bus. Inat least one embodiment, local I/O bus may include, without limitation,a high-speed I/O bus for connecting peripherals to memory 920, chipset,and processor 902. Examples may include, without limitation, an audiocontroller 929, a firmware hub (“flash BIOS”) 928, a wirelesstransceiver 926, a data storage 924, a legacy I/O controller 923containing user input and keyboard interfaces 925, a serial expansionport 927, such as Universal Serial Bus (“USB”), and a network controller934. Data storage 924 may comprise a hard disk drive, a floppy diskdrive, a CD-ROM device, a flash memory device, or other mass storagedevice.

In at least one embodiment, FIG. 9 illustrates a system, which includesinterconnected hardware devices or “chips”, whereas in otherembodiments, FIG. 9 may illustrate an exemplary System on a Chip(“SoC”). In at least one embodiment, devices may be interconnected withproprietary interconnects, standardized interconnects (e.g., PCIe) orsome combination thereof. In at least one embodiment, one or morecomponents of computer system 900 are interconnected using computeexpress link (CXL) interconnects.

Inference and/or training logic 715 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 715 are provided belowin conjunction with FIGS. 7A and/or 7B. In at least one embodiment,inference and/or training logic 715 may be used in system FIG. 9 forinferencing or predicting operations based, at least in part, on weightparameters calculated using neural network training operations, neuralnetwork functions and/or architectures, or neural network use casesdescribed herein.

Such components can be used to identify unlabeled images that includerepresentations of objects of interest using a semantic matchingprocess.

FIG. 10 is a block diagram illustrating an electronic device 1000 forutilizing a processor 1010, according to at least one embodiment. In atleast one embodiment, electronic device 1000 may be, for example andwithout limitation, a notebook, a tower server, a rack server, a bladeserver, a laptop, a desktop, a tablet, a mobile device, a phone, anembedded computer, or any other suitable electronic device.

In at least one embodiment, system 1000 may include, without limitation,processor 1010 communicatively coupled to any suitable number or kind ofcomponents, peripherals, modules, or devices. In at least oneembodiment, processor 1010 coupled using a bus or interface, such as a1° C. bus, a System Management Bus (“SMBus”), a Low Pin Count (LPC) bus,a Serial Peripheral Interface (“SPI”), a High Definition Audio (“HDA”)bus, a Serial Advance Technology Attachment (“SATA”) bus, a UniversalSerial Bus (“USB”) (versions 1, 2, 3), or a Universal AsynchronousReceiver/Transmitter (“UART”) bus. In at least one embodiment, FIG. 10illustrates a system, which includes interconnected hardware devices or“chips”, whereas in other embodiments, FIG. 10 may illustrate anexemplary System on a Chip (“SoC”). In at least one embodiment, devicesillustrated in FIG. 10 may be interconnected with proprietaryinterconnects, standardized interconnects (e.g., PCIe) or somecombination thereof. In at least one embodiment, one or more componentsof FIG. 10 are interconnected using compute express link (CXL)interconnects.

In at least one embodiment, FIG. 10 may include a display 1024, a touchscreen 1025, a touch pad 1030, a Near Field Communications unit (“NFC”)1045, a sensor hub 1040, a thermal sensor 1046, an Express Chipset(“EC”) 1035, a Trusted Platform Module (“TPM”) 1038, BIOS/firmware/flashmemory (“BIOS, FW Flash”) 1022, a DSP 1060, a drive 1020 such as a SolidState Disk (“SSD”) or a Hard Disk Drive (“HDD”), a wireless local areanetwork unit (“WLAN”) 1050, a Bluetooth unit 1052, a Wireless Wide AreaNetwork unit (“WWAN”) 1056, a Global Positioning System (GPS) 1055, acamera (“USB 3.0 camera”) 1054 such as a USB 3.0 camera, and/or a LowPower Double Data Rate (“LPDDR”) memory unit (“LPDDR3”) 1015 implementedin, for example, LPDDR3 standard. These components may each beimplemented in any suitable manner.

In at least one embodiment, other components may be communicativelycoupled to processor 1010 through components discussed above. In atleast one embodiment, an accelerometer 1041, Ambient Light Sensor(“ALS”) 1042, compass 1043, and a gyroscope 1044 may be communicativelycoupled to sensor hub 1040. In at least one embodiment, thermal sensor1039, a fan 1037, a keyboard 1046, and a touch pad 1030 may becommunicatively coupled to EC 1035. In at least one embodiment, speaker1063, headphones 1064, and microphone (“mic”) 1065 may becommunicatively coupled to an audio unit (“audio codec and class d amp”)1062, which may in turn be communicatively coupled to DSP 1060. In atleast one embodiment, audio unit 1064 may include, for example andwithout limitation, an audio coder/decoder (“codec”) and a class Damplifier. In at least one embodiment, SIM card (“SIM”) 1057 may becommunicatively coupled to WWAN unit 1056. In at least one embodiment,components such as WLAN unit 1050 and Bluetooth unit 1052, as well asWWAN unit 1056 may be implemented in a Next Generation Form Factor(“NGFF”).

Inference and/or training logic 715 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 715 are provided belowin conjunction with FIGS. 7a and/or 7 b. In at least one embodiment,inference and/or training logic 715 may be used in system FIG. 10 forinferencing or predicting operations based, at least in part, on weightparameters calculated using neural network training operations, neuralnetwork functions and/or architectures, or neural network use casesdescribed herein.

Such components can be used to identify unlabeled images that includerepresentations of objects of interest using a semantic matchingprocess.

FIG. 11 is a block diagram of a processing system, according to at leastone embodiment. In at least one embodiment, system 1100 includes one ormore processors 1102 and one or more graphics processors 1108, and maybe a single processor desktop system, a multiprocessor workstationsystem, or a server system having a large number of processors 1102 orprocessor cores 1107. In at least one embodiment, system 1100 is aprocessing platform incorporated within a system-on-a-chip (SoC)integrated circuit for use in mobile, handheld, or embedded devices.

In at least one embodiment, system 1100 can include, or be incorporatedwithin a server-based gaming platform, a game console, including a gameand media console, a mobile gaming console, a handheld game console, oran online game console. In at least one embodiment, system 1100 is amobile phone, smart phone, tablet computing device or mobile Internetdevice. In at least one embodiment, processing system 1100 can alsoinclude, couple with, or be integrated within a wearable device, such asa smart watch wearable device, smart eyewear device, augmented realitydevice, or virtual reality device. In at least one embodiment,processing system 1100 is a television or set top box device having oneor more processors 1102 and a graphical interface generated by one ormore graphics processors 1108.

In at least one embodiment, one or more processors 1102 each include oneor more processor cores 1107 to process instructions which, whenexecuted, perform operations for system and user software. In at leastone embodiment, each of one or more processor cores 1107 is configuredto process a specific instruction set 1109. In at least one embodiment,instruction set 1109 may facilitate Complex Instruction Set Computing(CISC), Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC), or computing via aVery Long Instruction Word (VLIW). In at least one embodiment, processorcores 1107 may each process a different instruction set 1109, which mayinclude instructions to facilitate emulation of other instruction sets.In at least one embodiment, processor core 1107 may also include otherprocessing devices, such a Digital Signal Processor (DSP).

In at least one embodiment, processor 1102 includes cache memory 1104.In at least one embodiment, processor 1102 can have a single internalcache or multiple levels of internal cache. In at least one embodiment,cache memory is shared among various components of processor 1102. In atleast one embodiment, processor 1102 also uses an external cache (e.g.,a Level-3 (L3) cache or Last Level Cache (LLC)) (not shown), which maybe shared among processor cores 1107 using known cache coherencytechniques. In at least one embodiment, register file 1106 isadditionally included in processor 1102 which may include differenttypes of registers for storing different types of data (e.g., integerregisters, floating point registers, status registers, and aninstruction pointer register). In at least one embodiment, register file1106 may include general-purpose registers or other registers.

In at least one embodiment, one or more processor(s) 1102 are coupledwith one or more interface bus(es) 1110 to transmit communicationsignals such as address, data, or control signals between processor 1102and other components in system 1100. In at least one embodiment,interface bus 1110, in one embodiment, can be a processor bus, such as aversion of a Direct Media Interface (DMI) bus. In at least oneembodiment, interface 1110 is not limited to a DMI bus, and may includeone or more Peripheral Component Interconnect buses (e.g., PCI, PCIExpress), memory busses, or other types of interface busses. In at leastone embodiment processor(s) 1102 include an integrated memory controller1116 and a platform controller hub 1130. In at least one embodiment,memory controller 1116 facilitates communication between a memory deviceand other components of system 1100, while platform controller hub (PCH)1130 provides connections to I/O devices via a local I/O bus.

In at least one embodiment, memory device 1120 can be a dynamic randomaccess memory (DRAM) device, a static random access memory (SRAM)device, flash memory device, phase-change memory device, or some othermemory device having suitable performance to serve as process memory. Inat least one embodiment memory device 1120 can operate as system memoryfor system 1100, to store data 1122 and instructions 1121 for use whenone or more processors 1102 executes an application or process. In atleast one embodiment, memory controller 1116 also couples with anoptional external graphics processor 1112, which may communicate withone or more graphics processors 1108 in processors 1102 to performgraphics and media operations. In at least one embodiment, a displaydevice 1111 can connect to processor(s) 1102. In at least one embodimentdisplay device 1111 can include one or more of an internal displaydevice, as in a mobile electronic device or a laptop device or anexternal display device attached via a display interface (e.g.,DisplayPort, etc.). In at least one embodiment, display device 1111 caninclude a head mounted display (HMD) such as a stereoscopic displaydevice for use in virtual reality (VR) applications or augmented reality(AR) applications.

In at least one embodiment, platform controller hub 1130 enablesperipherals to connect to memory device 1120 and processor 1102 via ahigh-speed I/O bus. In at least one embodiment, I/O peripherals include,but are not limited to, an audio controller 1146, a network controller1134, a firmware interface 1128, a wireless transceiver 1126, touchsensors 1125, a data storage device 1124 (e.g., hard disk drive, flashmemory, etc.). In at least one embodiment, data storage device 1124 canconnect via a storage interface (e.g., SATA) or via a peripheral bus,such as a Peripheral Component Interconnect bus (e.g., PCI, PCIExpress). In at least one embodiment, touch sensors 1125 can includetouch screen sensors, pressure sensors, or fingerprint sensors. In atleast one embodiment, wireless transceiver 1126 can be a Wi-Fitransceiver, a Bluetooth transceiver, or a mobile network transceiversuch as a 3G, 4G, or Long Term Evolution (LTE) transceiver. In at leastone embodiment, firmware interface 1128 enables communication withsystem firmware, and can be, for example, a unified extensible firmwareinterface (UEFI). In at least one embodiment, network controller 1134can enable a network connection to a wired network. In at least oneembodiment, a high-performance network controller (not shown) coupleswith interface bus 1110. In at least one embodiment, audio controller1146 is a multi-channel high definition audio controller. In at leastone embodiment, system 1100 includes an optional legacy I/O controller1140 for coupling legacy (e.g., Personal System 2 (PS/2)) devices tosystem. In at least one embodiment, platform controller hub 1130 canalso connect to one or more Universal Serial Bus (USB) controllers 1142connect input devices, such as keyboard and mouse 1143 combinations, acamera 1144, or other USB input devices.

In at least one embodiment, an instance of memory controller 1116 andplatform controller hub 1130 may be integrated into a discreet externalgraphics processor, such as external graphics processor 1112. In atleast one embodiment, platform controller hub 1130 and/or memorycontroller 1116 may be external to one or more processor(s) 1102. Forexample, in at least one embodiment, system 1100 can include an externalmemory controller 1116 and platform controller hub 1130, which may beconfigured as a memory controller hub and peripheral controller hubwithin a system chipset that is in communication with processor(s) 1102.

Inference and/or training logic 715 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 715 are provided belowin conjunction with FIGS. 7A and/or 7B. In at least one embodimentportions or all of inference and/or training logic 715 may beincorporated into graphics processor 1500. For example, in at least oneembodiment, training and/or inferencing techniques described herein mayuse one or more of ALUs embodied in a graphics processor. Moreover, inat least one embodiment, inferencing and/or training operationsdescribed herein may be done using logic other than logic illustrated inFIG. 7A or 7B. In at least one embodiment, weight parameters may bestored in on-chip or off-chip memory and/or registers (shown or notshown) that configure ALUs of a graphics processor to perform one ormore machine learning algorithms, neural network architectures, usecases, or training techniques described herein.

Such components can be used to identify unlabeled images that includerepresentations of objects of interest using a semantic matchingprocess.

FIG. 12 is a block diagram of a processor 1200 having one or moreprocessor cores 1202A-1202N, an integrated memory controller 1214, andan integrated graphics processor 1208, according to at least oneembodiment. In at least one embodiment, processor 1200 can includeadditional cores up to and including additional core 1202N representedby dashed lined boxes. In at least one embodiment, each of processorcores 1202A-1202N includes one or more internal cache units 1204A-1204N.In at least one embodiment, each processor core also has access to oneor more shared cached units 1206.

In at least one embodiment, internal cache units 1204A-1204N and sharedcache units 1206 represent a cache memory hierarchy within processor1200. In at least one embodiment, cache memory units 1204A-1204N mayinclude at least one level of instruction and data cache within eachprocessor core and one or more levels of shared mid-level cache, such asa Level 2 (L2), Level 3 (L3), Level 4 (L4), or other levels of cache,where a highest level of cache before external memory is classified asan LLC. In at least one embodiment, cache coherency logic maintainscoherency between various cache units 1206 and 1204A-1204N.

In at least one embodiment, processor 1200 may also include a set of oneor more bus controller units 1216 and a system agent core 1210. In atleast one embodiment, one or more bus controller units 1216 manage a setof peripheral buses, such as one or more PCI or PCI express busses. Inat least one embodiment, system agent core 1210 provides managementfunctionality for various processor components. In at least oneembodiment, system agent core 1210 includes one or more integratedmemory controllers 1214 to manage access to various external memorydevices (not shown).

In at least one embodiment, one or more of processor cores 1202A-1202Ninclude support for simultaneous multi-threading. In at least oneembodiment, system agent core 1210 includes components for coordinatingand operating cores 1202A-1202N during multi-threaded processing. In atleast one embodiment, system agent core 1210 may additionally include apower control unit (PCU), which includes logic and components toregulate one or more power states of processor cores 1202A-1202N andgraphics processor 1208.

In at least one embodiment, processor 1200 additionally includesgraphics processor 1208 to execute graphics processing operations. In atleast one embodiment, graphics processor 1208 couples with shared cacheunits 1206, and system agent core 1210, including one or more integratedmemory controllers 1214. In at least one embodiment, system agent core1210 also includes a display controller 1211 to drive graphics processoroutput to one or more coupled displays. In at least one embodiment,display controller 1211 may also be a separate module coupled withgraphics processor 1208 via at least one interconnect, or may beintegrated within graphics processor 1208.

In at least one embodiment, a ring based interconnect unit 1212 is usedto couple internal components of processor 1200. In at least oneembodiment, an alternative interconnect unit may be used, such as apoint-to-point interconnect, a switched interconnect, or othertechniques. In at least one embodiment, graphics processor 1208 coupleswith ring interconnect 1212 via an I/O link 1213.

In at least one embodiment, I/O link 1213 represents at least one ofmultiple varieties of I/O interconnects, including an on package I/Ointerconnect which facilitates communication between various processorcomponents and a high-performance embedded memory module 1218, such asan eDRAM module. In at least one embodiment, each of processor cores1202A-1202N and graphics processor 1208 use embedded memory modules 1218as a shared Last Level Cache.

In at least one embodiment, processor cores 1202A-1202N are homogenouscores executing a common instruction set architecture. In at least oneembodiment, processor cores 1202A-1202N are heterogeneous in terms ofinstruction set architecture (ISA), where one or more of processor cores1202A-1202N execute a common instruction set, while one or more othercores of processor cores 1202A-1202N executes a subset of a commoninstruction set or a different instruction set. In at least oneembodiment, processor cores 1202A-1202N are heterogeneous in terms ofmicroarchitecture, where one or more cores having a relatively higherpower consumption couple with one or more power cores having a lowerpower consumption. In at least one embodiment, processor 1200 can beimplemented on one or more chips or as an SoC integrated circuit.

Inference and/or training logic 715 are used to perform inferencingand/or training operations associated with one or more embodiments.Details regarding inference and/or training logic 715 are provided belowin conjunction with FIGS. 7a and/or 7 b. In at least one embodimentportions or all of inference and/or training logic 715 may beincorporated into processor 1200. For example, in at least oneembodiment, training and/or inferencing techniques described herein mayuse one or more of ALUs embodied in graphics processor 1512, graphicscore(s) 1202A-1202N, or other components in FIG. 12. Moreover, in atleast one embodiment, inferencing and/or training operations describedherein may be done using logic other than logic illustrated in FIG. 7Aor 7B. In at least one embodiment, weight parameters may be stored inon-chip or off-chip memory and/or registers (shown or not shown) thatconfigure ALUs of graphics processor 1200 to perform one or more machinelearning algorithms, neural network architectures, use cases, ortraining techniques described herein.

Such components can be used to identify unlabeled images that includerepresentations of objects of interest using a semantic matchingprocess.

Virtualized Computing Platform

FIG. 13 is an example data flow diagram for a process 1300 of generatingand deploying an image processing and inferencing pipeline, inaccordance with at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment,process 1300 may be deployed for use with imaging devices, processingdevices, and/or other device types at one or more facilities 1302.Process 1300 may be executed within a training system 1304 and/or adeployment system 1306. In at least one embodiment, training system 1304may be used to perform training, deployment, and implementation ofmachine learning models (e.g., neural networks, object detectionalgorithms, computer vision algorithms, etc.) for use in deploymentsystem 1306. In at least one embodiment, deployment system 1306 may beconfigured to offload processing and compute resources among adistributed computing environment to reduce infrastructure requirementsat facility 1302. In at least one embodiment, one or more applicationsin a pipeline may use or call upon services (e.g., inference,visualization, compute, AI, etc.) of deployment system 1306 duringexecution of applications.

In at least one embodiment, some of applications used in advancedprocessing and inferencing pipelines may use machine learning models orother AI to perform one or more processing steps. In at least oneembodiment, machine learning models may be trained at facility 1302using data 1308 (such as imaging data) generated at facility 1302 (andstored on one or more picture archiving and communication system (PACS)servers at facility 1302), may be trained using imaging or sequencingdata 1308 from another facility(ies), or a combination thereof. In atleast one embodiment, training system 1304 may be used to provideapplications, services, and/or other resources for generating working,deployable machine learning models for deployment system 1306.

In at least one embodiment, model registry 1324 may be backed by objectstorage that may support versioning and object metadata. In at least oneembodiment, object storage may be accessible through, for example, acloud storage (e.g., cloud 1426 of FIG. 14) compatible applicationprogramming interface (API) from within a cloud platform. In at leastone embodiment, machine learning models within model registry 1324 mayuploaded, listed, modified, or deleted by developers or partners of asystem interacting with an API. In at least one embodiment, an API mayprovide access to methods that allow users with appropriate credentialsto associate models with applications, such that models may be executedas part of execution of containerized instantiations of applications.

In at least one embodiment, training pipeline 1404 (FIG. 14) may includea scenario where facility 1302 is training their own machine learningmodel, or has an existing machine learning model that needs to beoptimized or updated. In at least one embodiment, imaging data 1308generated by imaging device(s), sequencing devices, and/or other devicetypes may be received. In at least one embodiment, once imaging data1308 is received, AI-assisted annotation 1310 may be used to aid ingenerating annotations corresponding to imaging data 1308 to be used asground truth data for a machine learning model. In at least oneembodiment, AI-assisted annotation 1310 may include one or more machinelearning models (e.g., convolutional neural networks (CNNs)) that may betrained to generate annotations corresponding to certain types ofimaging data 1308 (e.g., from certain devices). In at least oneembodiment, AI-assisted annotations 1310 may then be used directly, ormay be adjusted or fine-tuned using an annotation tool to generateground truth data. In at least one embodiment, AI-assisted annotations1310, labeled clinic data 1312, or a combination thereof may be used asground truth data for training a machine learning model. In at least oneembodiment, a trained machine learning model may be referred to asoutput model 1316, and may be used by deployment system 1306, asdescribed herein.

In at least one embodiment, training pipeline 1404 (FIG. 14) may includea scenario where facility 1302 needs a machine learning model for use inperforming one or more processing tasks for one or more applications indeployment system 1306, but facility 1302 may not currently have such amachine learning model (or may not have a model that is optimized,efficient, or effective for such purposes). In at least one embodiment,an existing machine learning model may be selected from a model registry1324. In at least one embodiment, model registry 1324 may includemachine learning models trained to perform a variety of differentinference tasks on imaging data. In at least one embodiment, machinelearning models in model registry 1324 may have been trained on imagingdata from different facilities than facility 1302 (e.g., facilitiesremotely located). In at least one embodiment, machine learning modelsmay have been trained on imaging data from one location, two locations,or any number of locations. In at least one embodiment, when beingtrained on imaging data from a specific location, training may takeplace at that location, or at least in a manner that protectsconfidentiality of imaging data or restricts imaging data from beingtransferred off-premises. In at least one embodiment, once a model istrained—or partially trained—at one location, a machine learning modelmay be added to model registry 1324. In at least one embodiment, amachine learning model may then be retrained, or updated, at any numberof other facilities, and a retrained or updated model may be madeavailable in model registry 1324. In at least one embodiment, a machinelearning model may then be selected from model registry 1324—andreferred to as output model 1316—and may be used in deployment system1306 to perform one or more processing tasks for one or moreapplications of a deployment system.

In at least one embodiment, training pipeline 1404 (FIG. 14), a scenariomay include facility 1302 requiring a machine learning model for use inperforming one or more processing tasks for one or more applications indeployment system 1306, but facility 1302 may not currently have such amachine learning model (or may not have a model that is optimized,efficient, or effective for such purposes). In at least one embodiment,a machine learning model selected from model registry 1324 may not befine-tuned or optimized for imaging data 1308 generated at facility 1302because of differences in populations, robustness of training data usedto train a machine learning model, diversity in anomalies of trainingdata, and/or other issues with training data. In at least oneembodiment, AI-assisted annotation 1310 may be used to aid in generatingannotations corresponding to imaging data 1308 to be used as groundtruth data for retraining or updating a machine learning model. In atleast one embodiment, labeled data 1312 may be used as ground truth datafor training a machine learning model. In at least one embodiment,retraining or updating a machine learning model may be referred to asmodel training 1314. In at least one embodiment, model training1314—e.g., AI-assisted annotations 1310, labeled clinic data 1312, or acombination thereof—may be used as ground truth data for retraining orupdating a machine learning model. In at least one embodiment, a trainedmachine learning model may be referred to as output model 1316, and maybe used by deployment system 1306, as described herein.

In at least one embodiment, deployment system 1306 may include software1318, services 1320, hardware 1322, and/or other components, features,and functionality. In at least one embodiment, deployment system 1306may include a software “stack,” such that software 1318 may be built ontop of services 1320 and may use services 1320 to perform some or all ofprocessing tasks, and services 1320 and software 1318 may be built ontop of hardware 1322 and use hardware 1322 to execute processing,storage, and/or other compute tasks of deployment system 1306. In atleast one embodiment, software 1318 may include any number of differentcontainers, where each container may execute an instantiation of anapplication. In at least one embodiment, each application may performone or more processing tasks in an advanced processing and inferencingpipeline (e.g., inferencing, object detection, feature detection,segmentation, image enhancement, calibration, etc.). In at least oneembodiment, an advanced processing and inferencing pipeline may bedefined based on selections of different containers that are desired orrequired for processing imaging data 1308, in addition to containersthat receive and configure imaging data for use by each container and/orfor use by facility 1302 after processing through a pipeline (e.g., toconvert outputs back to a usable data type). In at least one embodiment,a combination of containers within software 1318 (e.g., that make up apipeline) may be referred to as a virtual instrument (as described inmore detail herein), and a virtual instrument may leverage services 1320and hardware 1322 to execute some or all processing tasks ofapplications instantiated in containers.

In at least one embodiment, a data processing pipeline may receive inputdata (e.g., imaging data 1308) in a specific format in response to aninference request (e.g., a request from a user of deployment system1306). In at least one embodiment, input data may be representative ofone or more images, video, and/or other data representations generatedby one or more imaging devices. In at least one embodiment, data mayundergo pre-processing as part of data processing pipeline to preparedata for processing by one or more applications. In at least oneembodiment, post-processing may be performed on an output of one or moreinferencing tasks or other processing tasks of a pipeline to prepare anoutput data for a next application and/or to prepare output data fortransmission and/or use by a user (e.g., as a response to an inferencerequest). In at least one embodiment, inferencing tasks may be performedby one or more machine learning models, such as trained or deployedneural networks, which may include output models 1316 of training system1304.

In at least one embodiment, tasks of data processing pipeline may beencapsulated in a container(s) that each represents a discrete, fullyfunctional instantiation of an application and virtualized computingenvironment that is able to reference machine learning models. In atleast one embodiment, containers or applications may be published into aprivate (e.g., limited access) area of a container registry (describedin more detail herein), and trained or deployed models may be stored inmodel registry 1324 and associated with one or more applications. In atleast one embodiment, images of applications (e.g., container images)may be available in a container registry, and once selected by a userfrom a container registry for deployment in a pipeline, an image may beused to generate a container for an instantiation of an application foruse by a user's system.

In at least one embodiment, developers (e.g., software developers,clinicians, doctors, etc.) may develop, publish, and store applications(e.g., as containers) for performing image processing and/or inferencingon supplied data. In at least one embodiment, development, publishing,and/or storing may be performed using a software development kit (SDK)associated with a system (e.g., to ensure that an application and/orcontainer developed is compliant with or compatible with a system). Inat least one embodiment, an application that is developed may be testedlocally (e.g., at a first facility, on data from a first facility) withan SDK which may support at least some of services 1320 as a system(e.g., system 1400 of FIG. 14). In at least one embodiment, becauseDICOM objects may contain anywhere from one to hundreds of images orother data types, and due to a variation in data, a developer may beresponsible for managing (e.g., setting constructs for, buildingpre-processing into an application, etc.) extraction and preparation ofincoming data. In at least one embodiment, once validated by system 1400(e.g., for accuracy), an application may be available in a containerregistry for selection and/or implementation by a user to perform one ormore processing tasks with respect to data at a facility (e.g., a secondfacility) of a user.

In at least one embodiment, developers may then share applications orcontainers through a network for access and use by users of a system(e.g., system 1400 of FIG. 14). In at least one embodiment, completedand validated applications or containers may be stored in a containerregistry and associated machine learning models may be stored in modelregistry 1324. In at least one embodiment, a requesting entity—whoprovides an inference or image processing request—may browse a containerregistry and/or model registry 1324 for an application, container,dataset, machine learning model, etc., select a desired combination ofelements for inclusion in data processing pipeline, and submit animaging processing request. In at least one embodiment, a request mayinclude input data (and associated patient data, in some examples) thatis necessary to perform a request, and/or may include a selection ofapplication(s) and/or machine learning models to be executed inprocessing a request. In at least one embodiment, a request may then bepassed to one or more components of deployment system 1306 (e.g., acloud) to perform processing of data processing pipeline. In at leastone embodiment, processing by deployment system 1306 may includereferencing selected elements (e.g., applications, containers, models,etc.) from a container registry and/or model registry 1324. In at leastone embodiment, once results are generated by a pipeline, results may bereturned to a user for reference (e.g., for viewing in a viewingapplication suite executing on a local, on-premises workstation orterminal).

In at least one embodiment, to aid in processing or execution ofapplications or containers in pipelines, services 1320 may be leveraged.In at least one embodiment, services 1320 may include compute services,artificial intelligence (AI) services, visualization services, and/orother service types. In at least one embodiment, services 1320 mayprovide functionality that is common to one or more applications insoftware 1318, so functionality may be abstracted to a service that maybe called upon or leveraged by applications. In at least one embodiment,functionality provided by services 1320 may run dynamically and moreefficiently, while also scaling well by allowing applications to processdata in parallel (e.g., using a parallel computing platform 1430 (FIG.14)). In at least one embodiment, rather than each application thatshares a same functionality offered by a service 1320 being required tohave a respective instance of service 1320, service 1320 may be sharedbetween and among various applications. In at least one embodiment,services may include an inference server or engine that may be used forexecuting detection or segmentation tasks, as non-limiting examples. Inat least one embodiment, a model training service may be included thatmay provide machine learning model training and/or retrainingcapabilities. In at least one embodiment, a data augmentation servicemay further be included that may provide GPU accelerated data (e.g.,DICOM, RIS, CIS, REST compliant, RPC, raw, etc.) extraction, resizing,scaling, and/or other augmentation. In at least one embodiment, avisualization service may be used that may add image renderingeffects—such as ray-tracing, rasterization, denoising, sharpening,etc.—to add realism to two-dimensional (2D) and/or three-dimensional(3D) models. In at least one embodiment, virtual instrument services maybe included that provide for beam-forming, segmentation, inferencing,imaging, and/or support for other applications within pipelines ofvirtual instruments.

In at least one embodiment, where a service 1320 includes an AI service(e.g., an inference service), one or more machine learning models may beexecuted by calling upon (e.g., as an API call) an inference service(e.g., an inference server) to execute machine learning model(s), orprocessing thereof, as part of application execution. In at least oneembodiment, where another application includes one or more machinelearning models for segmentation tasks, an application may call upon aninference service to execute machine learning models for performing oneor more of processing operations associated with segmentation tasks. Inat least one embodiment, software 1318 implementing advanced processingand inferencing pipeline that includes segmentation application andanomaly detection application may be streamlined because eachapplication may call upon a same inference service to perform one ormore inferencing tasks.

In at least one embodiment, hardware 1322 may include GPUs, CPUs,graphics cards, an AI/deep learning system (e.g., an AI supercomputer,such as NVIDIA's DGX), a cloud platform, or a combination thereof. In atleast one embodiment, different types of hardware 1322 may be used toprovide efficient, purpose-built support for software 1318 and services1320 in deployment system 1306. In at least one embodiment, use of GPUprocessing may be implemented for processing locally (e.g., at facility1302), within an AI/deep learning system, in a cloud system, and/or inother processing components of deployment system 1306 to improveefficiency, accuracy, and efficacy of image processing and generation.In at least one embodiment, software 1318 and/or services 1320 may beoptimized for GPU processing with respect to deep learning, machinelearning, and/or high-performance computing, as non-limiting examples.In at least one embodiment, at least some of computing environment ofdeployment system 1306 and/or training system 1304 may be executed in adatacenter one or more supercomputers or high performance computingsystems, with GPU optimized software (e.g., hardware and softwarecombination of NVIDIA's DGX System). In at least one embodiment,hardware 1322 may include any number of GPUs that may be called upon toperform processing of data in parallel, as described herein. In at leastone embodiment, cloud platform may further include GPU processing forGPU-optimized execution of deep learning tasks, machine learning tasks,or other computing tasks. In at least one embodiment, cloud platform(e.g., NVIDIA's NGC) may be executed using an AI/deep learningsupercomputer(s) and/or GPU-optimized software (e.g., as provided onNVIDIA's DGX Systems) as a hardware abstraction and scaling platform. Inat least one embodiment, cloud platform may integrate an applicationcontainer clustering system or orchestration system (e.g., KUBERNETES)on multiple GPUs to enable seamless scaling and load balancing.

FIG. 14 is a system diagram for an example system 1400 for generatingand deploying an imaging deployment pipeline, in accordance with atleast one embodiment. In at least one embodiment, system 1400 may beused to implement process 1300 of FIG. 13 and/or other processesincluding advanced processing and inferencing pipelines. In at least oneembodiment, system 1400 may include training system 1304 and deploymentsystem 1306. In at least one embodiment, training system 1304 anddeployment system 1306 may be implemented using software 1318, services1320, and/or hardware 1322, as described herein.

In at least one embodiment, system 1400 (e.g., training system 1304and/or deployment system 1306) may implemented in a cloud computingenvironment (e.g., using cloud 1426). In at least one embodiment, system1400 may be implemented locally with respect to a healthcare servicesfacility, or as a combination of both cloud and local computingresources. In at least one embodiment, access to APIs in cloud 1426 maybe restricted to authorized users through enacted security measures orprotocols. In at least one embodiment, a security protocol may includeweb tokens that may be signed by an authentication (e.g., AuthN, AuthZ,Gluecon, etc.) service and may carry appropriate authorization. In atleast one embodiment, APIs of virtual instruments (described herein), orother instantiations of system 1400, may be restricted to a set ofpublic IPs that have been vetted or authorized for interaction.

In at least one embodiment, various components of system 1400 maycommunicate between and among one another using any of a variety ofdifferent network types, including but not limited to local areanetworks (LANs) and/or wide area networks (WANs) via wired and/orwireless communication protocols. In at least one embodiment,communication between facilities and components of system 1400 (e.g.,for transmitting inference requests, for receiving results of inferencerequests, etc.) may be communicated over data bus(ses), wireless dataprotocols (Wi-Fi), wired data protocols (e.g., Ethernet), etc.

In at least one embodiment, training system 1304 may execute trainingpipelines 1404, similar to those described herein with respect to FIG.13. In at least one embodiment, where one or more machine learningmodels are to be used in deployment pipelines 1410 by deployment system1306, training pipelines 1404 may be used to train or retrain one ormore (e.g. pre-trained) models, and/or implement one or more ofpre-trained models 1406 (e.g., without a need for retraining orupdating). In at least one embodiment, as a result of training pipelines1404, output model(s) 1316 may be generated. In at least one embodiment,training pipelines 1404 may include any number of processing steps, suchas but not limited to imaging data (or other input data) conversion oradaption In at least one embodiment, for different machine learningmodels used by deployment system 1306, different training pipelines 1404may be used. In at least one embodiment, training pipeline 1404 similarto a first example described with respect to FIG. 13 may be used for afirst machine learning model, training pipeline 1404 similar to a secondexample described with respect to FIG. 13 may be used for a secondmachine learning model, and training pipeline 1404 similar to a thirdexample described with respect to FIG. 13 may be used for a thirdmachine learning model. In at least one embodiment, any combination oftasks within training system 1304 may be used depending on what isrequired for each respective machine learning model. In at least oneembodiment, one or more of machine learning models may already betrained and ready for deployment so machine learning models may notundergo any processing by training system 1304, and may be implementedby deployment system 1306.

In at least one embodiment, output model(s) 1316 and/or pre-trainedmodel(s) 1406 may include any types of machine learning models dependingon implementation or embodiment. In at least one embodiment, and withoutlimitation, machine learning models used by system 1400 may includemachine learning model(s) using linear regression, logistic regression,decision trees, support vector machines (SVM), Naïve Bayes, k-nearestneighbor (Knn), K means clustering, random forest, dimensionalityreduction algorithms, gradient boosting algorithms, neural networks(e.g., auto-encoders, convolutional, recurrent, perceptrons, Long/ShortTerm Memory (LSTM), Hopfield, Boltzmann, deep belief, deconvolutional,generative adversarial, liquid state machine, etc.), and/or other typesof machine learning models.

In at least one embodiment, training pipelines 1404 may includeAI-assisted annotation, as described in more detail herein with respectto at least FIG. 15B. In at least one embodiment, labeled data 1312(e.g., traditional annotation) may be generated by any number oftechniques. In at least one embodiment, labels or other annotations maybe generated within a drawing program (e.g., an annotation program), acomputer aided design (CAD) program, a labeling program, another type ofprogram suitable for generating annotations or labels for ground truth,and/or may be hand drawn, in some examples. In at least one embodiment,ground truth data may be synthetically produced (e.g., generated fromcomputer models or renderings), real produced (e.g., designed andproduced from real-world data), machine-automated (e.g., using featureanalysis and learning to extract features from data and then generatelabels), human annotated (e.g., labeler, or annotation expert, defineslocation of labels), and/or a combination thereof. In at least oneembodiment, for each instance of imaging data 1308 (or other data typeused by machine learning models), there may be corresponding groundtruth data generated by training system 1304. In at least oneembodiment, AI-assisted annotation may be performed as part ofdeployment pipelines 1410; either in addition to, or in lieu ofAI-assisted annotation included in training pipelines 1404. In at leastone embodiment, system 1400 may include a multi-layer platform that mayinclude a software layer (e.g., software 1318) of diagnosticapplications (or other application types) that may perform one or moremedical imaging and diagnostic functions. In at least one embodiment,system 1400 may be communicatively coupled to (e.g., via encryptedlinks) PACS server networks of one or more facilities. In at least oneembodiment, system 1400 may be configured to access and referenced datafrom PACS servers to perform operations, such as training machinelearning models, deploying machine learning models, image processing,inferencing, and/or other operations.

In at least one embodiment, a software layer may be implemented as asecure, encrypted, and/or authenticated API through which applicationsor containers may be invoked (e.g., called) from an externalenvironment(s) (e.g., facility 1302). In at least one embodiment,applications may then call or execute one or more services 1320 forperforming compute, AI, or visualization tasks associated withrespective applications, and software 1318 and/or services 1320 mayleverage hardware 1322 to perform processing tasks in an effective andefficient manner.

In at least one embodiment, deployment system 1306 may executedeployment pipelines 1410. In at least one embodiment, deploymentpipelines 1410 may include any number of applications that may besequentially, non-sequentially, or otherwise applied to imaging data(and/or other data types) generated by imaging devices, sequencingdevices, genomics devices, etc.—including AI-assisted annotation, asdescribed above. In at least one embodiment, as described herein, adeployment pipeline 1410 for an individual device may be referred to asa virtual instrument for a device (e.g., a virtual ultrasoundinstrument, a virtual CT scan instrument, a virtual sequencinginstrument, etc.). In at least one embodiment, for a single device,there may be more than one deployment pipeline 1410 depending oninformation desired from data generated by a device. In at least oneembodiment, where detections of anomalies are desired from an Millmachine, there may be a first deployment pipeline 1410, and where imageenhancement is desired from output of an Mill machine, there may be asecond deployment pipeline 1410.

In at least one embodiment, an image generation application may includea processing task that includes use of a machine learning model. In atleast one embodiment, a user may desire to use their own machinelearning model, or to select a machine learning model from modelregistry 1324. In at least one embodiment, a user may implement theirown machine learning model or select a machine learning model forinclusion in an application for performing a processing task. In atleast one embodiment, applications may be selectable and customizable,and by defining constructs of applications, deployment andimplementation of applications for a particular user are presented as amore seamless user experience. In at least one embodiment, by leveragingother features of system 1400—such as services 1320 and hardware1322—deployment pipelines 1410 may be even more user friendly, providefor easier integration, and produce more accurate, efficient, and timelyresults.

In at least one embodiment, deployment system 1306 may include a userinterface 1414 (e.g., a graphical user interface, a web interface, etc.)that may be used to select applications for inclusion in deploymentpipeline(s) 1410, arrange applications, modify or change applications orparameters or constructs thereof, use and interact with deploymentpipeline(s) 1410 during set-up and/or deployment, and/or to otherwiseinteract with deployment system 1306. In at least one embodiment,although not illustrated with respect to training system 1304, userinterface 1414 (or a different user interface) may be used for selectingmodels for use in deployment system 1306, for selecting models fortraining, or retraining, in training system 1304, and/or for otherwiseinteracting with training system 1304.

In at least one embodiment, pipeline manager 1412 may be used, inaddition to an application orchestration system 1428, to manageinteraction between applications or containers of deployment pipeline(s)1410 and services 1320 and/or hardware 1322. In at least one embodiment,pipeline manager 1412 may be configured to facilitate interactions fromapplication to application, from application to service 1320, and/orfrom application or service to hardware 1322. In at least oneembodiment, although illustrated as included in software 1318, this isnot intended to be limiting, and in some examples (e.g., as illustratedin FIG. 12 cc) pipeline manager 1412 may be included in services 1320.In at least one embodiment, application orchestration system 1428 (e.g.,Kubernetes, DOCKER, etc.) may include a container orchestration systemthat may group applications into containers as logical units forcoordination, management, scaling, and deployment. In at least oneembodiment, by associating applications from deployment pipeline(s) 1410(e.g., a reconstruction application, a segmentation application, etc.)with individual containers, each application may execute in aself-contained environment (e.g., at a kernel level) to increase speedand efficiency.

In at least one embodiment, each application and/or container (or imagethereof) may be individually developed, modified, and deployed (e.g., afirst user or developer may develop, modify, and deploy a firstapplication and a second user or developer may develop, modify, anddeploy a second application separate from a first user or developer),which may allow for focus on, and attention to, a task of a singleapplication and/or container(s) without being hindered by tasks ofanother application(s) or container(s). In at least one embodiment,communication, and cooperation between different containers orapplications may be aided by pipeline manager 1412 and applicationorchestration system 1428. In at least one embodiment, so long as anexpected input and/or output of each container or application is knownby a system (e.g., based on constructs of applications or containers),application orchestration system 1428 and/or pipeline manager 1412 mayfacilitate communication among and between, and sharing of resourcesamong and between, each of applications or containers. In at least oneembodiment, because one or more of applications or containers indeployment pipeline(s) 1410 may share same services and resources,application orchestration system 1428 may orchestrate, load balance, anddetermine sharing of services or resources between and among variousapplications or containers. In at least one embodiment, a scheduler maybe used to track resource requirements of applications or containers,current usage or planned usage of these resources, and resourceavailability. In at least one embodiment, a scheduler may thus allocateresources to different applications and distribute resources between andamong applications in view of requirements and availability of a system.In some examples, a scheduler (and/or other component of applicationorchestration system 1428) may determine resource availability anddistribution based on constraints imposed on a system (e.g., userconstraints), such as quality of service (QoS), urgency of need for dataoutputs (e.g., to determine whether to execute real-time processing ordelayed processing), etc.

In at least one embodiment, services 1320 leveraged by and shared byapplications or containers in deployment system 1306 may include computeservices 1416, AI services 1418, visualization services 1420, and/orother service types. In at least one embodiment, applications may call(e.g., execute) one or more of services 1320 to perform processingoperations for an application. In at least one embodiment, computeservices 1416 may be leveraged by applications to performsuper-computing or other high-performance computing (HPC) tasks. In atleast one embodiment, compute service(s) 1416 may be leveraged toperform parallel processing (e.g., using a parallel computing platform1430) for processing data through one or more of applications and/or oneor more tasks of a single application, substantially simultaneously. Inat least one embodiment, parallel computing platform 1430 (e.g.,NVIDIA's CUDA) may enable general purpose computing on GPUs (GPGPU)(e.g., GPUs 1422). In at least one embodiment, a software layer ofparallel computing platform 1430 may provide access to virtualinstruction sets and parallel computational elements of GPUs, forexecution of compute kernels. In at least one embodiment, parallelcomputing platform 1430 may include memory and, in some embodiments, amemory may be shared between and among multiple containers, and/orbetween and among different processing tasks within a single container.In at least one embodiment, inter-process communication (IPC) calls maybe generated for multiple containers and/or for multiple processeswithin a container to use same data from a shared segment of memory ofparallel computing platform 1430 (e.g., where multiple different stagesof an application or multiple applications are processing sameinformation). In at least one embodiment, rather than making a copy ofdata and moving data to different locations in memory (e.g., aread/write operation), same data in same location of a memory may beused for any number of processing tasks (e.g., at a same time, atdifferent times, etc.). In at least one embodiment, as data is used togenerate new data as a result of processing, this information of a newlocation of data may be stored and shared between various applications.In at least one embodiment, location of data and a location of updatedor modified data may be part of a definition of how a payload isunderstood within containers.

In at least one embodiment, AI services 1418 may be leveraged to performinferencing services for executing machine learning model(s) associatedwith applications (e.g., tasked with performing one or more processingtasks of an application). In at least one embodiment, AI services 1418may leverage AI system 1424 to execute machine learning model(s) (e.g.,neural networks, such as CNNs) for segmentation, reconstruction, objectdetection, feature detection, classification, and/or other inferencingtasks. In at least one embodiment, applications of deploymentpipeline(s) 1410 may use one or more of output models 1316 from trainingsystem 1304 and/or other models of applications to perform inference onimaging data. In at least one embodiment, two or more examples ofinferencing using application orchestration system 1428 (e.g., ascheduler) may be available. In at least one embodiment, a firstcategory may include a high priority/low latency path that may achievehigher service level agreements, such as for performing inference onurgent requests during an emergency, or for a radiologist duringdiagnosis. In at least one embodiment, a second category may include astandard priority path that may be used for requests that may benon-urgent or where analysis may be performed at a later time. In atleast one embodiment, application orchestration system 1428 maydistribute resources (e.g., services 1320 and/or hardware 1322) based onpriority paths for different inferencing tasks of AI services 1418.

In at least one embodiment, shared storage may be mounted to AI services1418 within system 1400. In at least one embodiment, shared storage mayoperate as a cache (or other storage device type) and may be used toprocess inference requests from applications. In at least oneembodiment, when an inference request is submitted, a request may bereceived by a set of API instances of deployment system 1306, and one ormore instances may be selected (e.g., for best fit, for load balancing,etc.) to process a request. In at least one embodiment, to process arequest, a request may be entered into a database, a machine learningmodel may be located from model registry 1324 if not already in a cache,a validation step may ensure appropriate machine learning model isloaded into a cache (e.g., shared storage), and/or a copy of a model maybe saved to a cache. In at least one embodiment, a scheduler (e.g., ofpipeline manager 1412) may be used to launch an application that isreferenced in a request if an application is not already running or ifthere are not enough instances of an application. In at least oneembodiment, if an inference server is not already launched to execute amodel, an inference server may be launched. Any number of inferenceservers may be launched per model. In at least one embodiment, in a pullmodel, in which inference servers are clustered, models may be cachedwhenever load balancing is advantageous. In at least one embodiment,inference servers may be statically loaded in corresponding, distributedservers.

In at least one embodiment, inferencing may be performed using aninference server that runs in a container. In at least one embodiment,an instance of an inference server may be associated with a model (andoptionally a plurality of versions of a model). In at least oneembodiment, if an instance of an inference server does not exist when arequest to perform inference on a model is received, a new instance maybe loaded. In at least one embodiment, when starting an inferenceserver, a model may be passed to an inference server such that a samecontainer may be used to serve different models so long as inferenceserver is running as a different instance.

In at least one embodiment, during application execution, an inferencerequest for a given application may be received, and a container (e.g.,hosting an instance of an inference server) may be loaded (if notalready), and a start procedure may be called. In at least oneembodiment, pre-processing logic in a container may load, decode, and/orperform any additional pre-processing on incoming data (e.g., using aCPU(s) and/or GPU(s)). In at least one embodiment, once data is preparedfor inference, a container may perform inference as necessary on data.In at least one embodiment, this may include a single inference call onone image (e.g., a hand X-ray), or may require inference on hundreds ofimages (e.g., a chest CT). In at least one embodiment, an applicationmay summarize results before completing, which may include, withoutlimitation, a single confidence score, pixel level-segmentation,voxel-level segmentation, generating a visualization, or generating textto summarize findings. In at least one embodiment, different models orapplications may be assigned different priorities. For example, somemodels may have a real-time (TAT<1 min) priority while others may havelower priority (e.g., TAT<10 min). In at least one embodiment, modelexecution times may be measured from requesting institution or entityand may include partner network traversal time, as well as execution onan inference service.

In at least one embodiment, transfer of requests between services 1320and inference applications may be hidden behind a software developmentkit (SDK), and robust transport may be provide through a queue. In atleast one embodiment, a request will be placed in a queue via an API foran individual application/tenant ID combination and an SDK will pull arequest from a queue and give a request to an application. In at leastone embodiment, a name of a queue may be provided in an environment fromwhere an SDK will pick it up. In at least one embodiment, asynchronouscommunication through a queue may be useful as it may allow any instanceof an application to pick up work as it becomes available. Results maybe transferred back through a queue, to ensure no data is lost. In atleast one embodiment, queues may also provide an ability to segmentwork, as highest priority work may go to a queue with most instances ofan application connected to it, while lowest priority work may go to aqueue with a single instance connected to it that processes tasks in anorder received. In at least one embodiment, an application may run on aGPU-accelerated instance generated in cloud 1426, and an inferenceservice may perform inferencing on a GPU.

In at least one embodiment, visualization services 1420 may be leveragedto generate visualizations for viewing outputs of applications and/ordeployment pipeline(s) 1410. In at least one embodiment, GPUs 1422 maybe leveraged by visualization services 1420 to generate visualizations.In at least one embodiment, rendering effects, such as ray-tracing, maybe implemented by visualization services 1420 to generate higher qualityvisualizations. In at least one embodiment, visualizations may include,without limitation, 2D image renderings, 3D volume renderings, 3D volumereconstruction, 2D tomographic slices, virtual reality displays,augmented reality displays, etc. In at least one embodiment, virtualizedenvironments may be used to generate a virtual interactive display orenvironment (e.g., a virtual environment) for interaction by users of asystem (e.g., doctors, nurses, radiologists, etc.). In at least oneembodiment, visualization services 1420 may include an internalvisualizer, cinematics, and/or other rendering or image processingcapabilities or functionality (e.g., ray tracing, rasterization,internal optics, etc.).

In at least one embodiment, hardware 1322 may include GPUs 1422, AIsystem 1424, cloud 1426, and/or any other hardware used for executingtraining system 1304 and/or deployment system 1306. In at least oneembodiment, GPUs 1422 (e.g., NVIDIA's TESLA and/or QUADRO GPUs) mayinclude any number of GPUs that may be used for executing processingtasks of compute services 1416, AI services 1418, visualization services1420, other services, and/or any of features or functionality ofsoftware 1318. For example, with respect to AI services 1418, GPUs 1422may be used to perform pre-processing on imaging data (or other datatypes used by machine learning models), post-processing on outputs ofmachine learning models, and/or to perform inferencing (e.g., to executemachine learning models). In at least one embodiment, cloud 1426, AIsystem 1424, and/or other components of system 1400 may use GPUs 1422.In at least one embodiment, cloud 1426 may include a GPU-optimizedplatform for deep learning tasks. In at least one embodiment, AI system1424 may use GPUs, and cloud 1426—or at least a portion tasked with deeplearning or inferencing—may be executed using one or more AI systems1424. As such, although hardware 1322 is illustrated as discretecomponents, this is not intended to be limiting, and any components ofhardware 1322 may be combined with, or leveraged by, any othercomponents of hardware 1322.

In at least one embodiment, AI system 1424 may include a purpose-builtcomputing system (e.g., a super-computer or an HPC) configured forinferencing, deep learning, machine learning, and/or other artificialintelligence tasks. In at least one embodiment, AI system 1424 (e.g.,NVIDIA's DGX) may include GPU-optimized software (e.g., a softwarestack) that may be executed using a plurality of GPUs 1422, in additionto CPUs, RAM, storage, and/or other components, features, orfunctionality. In at least one embodiment, one or more AI systems 1424may be implemented in cloud 1426 (e.g., in a data center) for performingsome or all of AI-based processing tasks of system 1400.

In at least one embodiment, cloud 1426 may include a GPU-acceleratedinfrastructure (e.g., NVIDIA's NGC) that may provide a GPU-optimizedplatform for executing processing tasks of system 1400. In at least oneembodiment, cloud 1426 may include an AI system(s) 1424 for performingone or more of AI-based tasks of system 1400 (e.g., as a hardwareabstraction and scaling platform). In at least one embodiment, cloud1426 may integrate with application orchestration system 1428 leveragingmultiple GPUs to enable seamless scaling and load balancing between andamong applications and services 1320. In at least one embodiment, cloud1426 may tasked with executing at least some of services 1320 of system1400, including compute services 1416, AI services 1418, and/orvisualization services 1420, as described herein. In at least oneembodiment, cloud 1426 may perform small and large batch inference(e.g., executing NVIDIA's TENSOR RT), provide an accelerated parallelcomputing API and platform 1430 (e.g., NVIDIA's CUDA), executeapplication orchestration system 1428 (e.g., KUBERNETES), provide agraphics rendering API and platform (e.g., for ray-tracing, 2D graphics,3D graphics, and/or other rendering techniques to produce higher qualitycinematics), and/or may provide other functionality for system 1400.

FIG. 15A illustrates a data flow diagram for a process 1500 to train,retrain, or update a machine learning model, in accordance with at leastone embodiment. In at least one embodiment, process 1500 may be executedusing, as a non-limiting example, system 1400 of FIG. 14. In at leastone embodiment, process 1500 may leverage services 1320 and/or hardware1322 of system 1400, as described herein. In at least one embodiment,refined models 1512 generated by process 1500 may be executed bydeployment system 1306 for one or more containerized applications indeployment pipelines 1410.

In at least one embodiment, model training 1314 may include retrainingor updating an initial model 1504 (e.g., a pre-trained model) using newtraining data (e.g., new input data, such as customer dataset 1506,and/or new ground truth data associated with input data). In at leastone embodiment, to retrain, or update, initial model 1504, output orloss layer(s) of initial model 1504 may be reset, or deleted, and/orreplaced with an updated or new output or loss layer(s). In at least oneembodiment, initial model 1504 may have previously fine-tuned parameters(e.g., weights and/or biases) that remain from prior training, sotraining or retraining 1314 may not take as long or require as muchprocessing as training a model from scratch. In at least one embodiment,during model training 1314, by having reset or replaced output or losslayer(s) of initial model 1504, parameters may be updated and re-tunedfor a new data set based on loss calculations associated with accuracyof output or loss layer(s) at generating predictions on new, customerdataset 1506 (e.g., image data 1308 of FIG. 13).

In at least one embodiment, pre-trained models 1406 may be stored in adata store, or registry (e.g., model registry 1324 of FIG. 13). In atleast one embodiment, pre-trained models 1406 may have been trained, atleast in part, at one or more facilities other than a facility executingprocess 1500. In at least one embodiment, to protect privacy and rightsof patients, subjects, or clients of different facilities, pre-trainedmodels 1406 may have been trained, on-premise, using customer or patientdata generated on-premise. In at least one embodiment, pre-trainedmodels 1406 may be trained using cloud 1426 and/or other hardware 1322,but confidential, privacy protected patient data may not be transferredto, used by, or accessible to any components of cloud 1426 (or other offpremise hardware). In at least one embodiment, where a pre-trained model1406 is trained at using patient data from more than one facility,pre-trained model 1406 may have been individually trained for eachfacility prior to being trained on patient or customer data from anotherfacility. In at least one embodiment, such as where a customer orpatient data has been released of privacy concerns (e.g., by waiver, forexperimental use, etc.), or where a customer or patient data is includedin a public data set, a customer or patient data from any number offacilities may be used to train pre-trained model 1406 on-premise and/oroff premise, such as in a datacenter or other cloud computinginfrastructure.

In at least one embodiment, when selecting applications for use indeployment pipelines 1410, a user may also select machine learningmodels to be used for specific applications. In at least one embodiment,a user may not have a model for use, so a user may select a pre-trainedmodel 1406 to use with an application. In at least one embodiment,pre-trained model 1406 may not be optimized for generating accurateresults on customer dataset 1506 of a facility of a user (e.g., based onpatient diversity, demographics, types of medical imaging devices used,etc.). In at least one embodiment, prior to deploying pre-trained model1406 into deployment pipeline 1410 for use with an application(s),pre-trained model 1406 may be updated, retrained, and/or fine-tuned foruse at a respective facility.

In at least one embodiment, a user may select pre-trained model 1406that is to be updated, retrained, and/or fine-tuned, and pre-trainedmodel 1406 may be referred to as initial model 1504 for training system1304 within process 1500. In at least one embodiment, customer dataset1506 (e.g., imaging data, genomics data, sequencing data, or other datatypes generated by devices at a facility) may be used to perform modeltraining 1314 (which may include, without limitation, transfer learning)on initial model 1504 to generate refined model 1512. In at least oneembodiment, ground truth data corresponding to customer dataset 1506 maybe generated by training system 1304. In at least one embodiment, groundtruth data may be generated, at least in part, by clinicians,scientists, doctors, practitioners, at a facility (e.g., as labeledclinic data 1312 of FIG. 13).

In at least one embodiment, AI-assisted annotation 1310 may be used insome examples to generate ground truth data. In at least one embodiment,AI-assisted annotation 1310 (e.g., implemented using an AI-assistedannotation SDK) may leverage machine learning models (e.g., neuralnetworks) to generate suggested or predicted ground truth data for acustomer dataset. In at least one embodiment, user 1510 may useannotation tools within a user interface (a graphical user interface(GUI)) on computing device 1508.

In at least one embodiment, user 1510 may interact with a GUI viacomputing device 1508 to edit or fine-tune (auto)annotations. In atleast one embodiment, a polygon editing feature may be used to movevertices of a polygon to more accurate or fine-tuned locations.

In at least one embodiment, once customer dataset 1506 has associatedground truth data, ground truth data (e.g., from AI-assisted annotation,manual labeling, etc.) may be used by during model training 1314 togenerate refined model 1512. In at least one embodiment, customerdataset 1506 may be applied to initial model 1504 any number of times,and ground truth data may be used to update parameters of initial model1504 until an acceptable level of accuracy is attained for refined model1512. In at least one embodiment, once refined model 1512 is generated,refined model 1512 may be deployed within one or more deploymentpipelines 1410 at a facility for performing one or more processing taskswith respect to medical imaging data.

In at least one embodiment, refined model 1512 may be uploaded topre-trained models 1406 in model registry 1324 to be selected by anotherfacility. In at least one embodiment, his process may be completed atany number of facilities such that refined model 1512 may be furtherrefined on new datasets any number of times to generate a more universalmodel.

FIG. 15B is an example illustration of a client-server architecture 1532to enhance annotation tools with pre-trained annotation models, inaccordance with at least one embodiment. In at least one embodiment,AI-assisted annotation tools 1536 may be instantiated based on aclient-server architecture 1532. In at least one embodiment, annotationtools 1536 in imaging applications may aid radiologists, for example,identify organs and abnormalities. In at least one embodiment, imagingapplications may include software tools that help user 1510 to identify,as a non-limiting example, a few extreme points on a particular organ ofinterest in raw images 1534 (e.g., in a 3D MRI or CT scan) and receiveauto-annotated results for all 2D slices of a particular organ. In atleast one embodiment, results may be stored in a data store as trainingdata 1538 and used as (for example and without limitation) ground truthdata for training. In at least one embodiment, when computing device1508 sends extreme points for AI-assisted annotation 1310, a deeplearning model, for example, may receive this data as input and returninference results of a segmented organ or abnormality. In at least oneembodiment, pre-instantiated annotation tools, such as AI-AssistedAnnotation Tool 1536B in FIG. 15B, may be enhanced by making API calls(e.g., API Call 1544) to a server, such as an Annotation AssistantServer 1540 that may include a set of pre-trained models 1542 stored inan annotation model registry, for example. In at least one embodiment,an annotation model registry may store pre-trained models 1542 (e.g.,machine learning models, such as deep learning models) that arepre-trained to perform AI-assisted annotation on a particular organ orabnormality. These models may be further updated by using trainingpipelines 1404. In at least one embodiment, pre-installed annotationtools may be improved over time as new labeled clinic data 1312 isadded.

Such components can be used to identify unlabeled images that includerepresentations of objects of interest using a semantic matchingprocess.

Other variations are within spirit of present disclosure. Thus, whiledisclosed techniques are susceptible to various modifications andalternative constructions, certain illustrated embodiments thereof areshown in drawings and have been described above in detail. It should beunderstood, however, that there is no intention to limit disclosure tospecific form or forms disclosed, but on contrary, intention is to coverall modifications, alternative constructions, and equivalents fallingwithin spirit and scope of disclosure, as defined in appended claims.

Use of terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in context ofdescribing disclosed embodiments (especially in context of followingclaims) are to be construed to cover both singular and plural, unlessotherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context, and notas a definition of a term. Terms “comprising,” “having,” “including,”and “containing” are to be construed as open-ended terms (meaning“including, but not limited to,”) unless otherwise noted. Term“connected,” when unmodified and referring to physical connections, isto be construed as partly or wholly contained within, attached to, orjoined together, even if there is something intervening. Recitation ofranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthandmethod of referring individually to each separate value falling withinrange, unless otherwise indicated herein and each separate value isincorporated into specification as if it were individually recitedherein. Use of term “set” (e.g., “a set of items”) or “subset,” unlessotherwise noted or contradicted by context, is to be construed as anonempty collection comprising one or more members. Further, unlessotherwise noted or contradicted by context, term “subset” of acorresponding set does not necessarily denote a proper subset ofcorresponding set, but subset and corresponding set may be equal.

Conjunctive language, such as phrases of form “at least one of A, B, andC,” or “at least one of A, B and C,” unless specifically statedotherwise or otherwise clearly contradicted by context, is otherwiseunderstood with context as used in general to present that an item,term, etc., may be either A or B or C, or any nonempty subset of set ofA and B and C. For instance, in illustrative example of a set havingthree members, conjunctive phrases “at least one of A, B, and C” and “atleast one of A, B and C” refer to any of following sets: {A}, {B}, {C},{A, B}, {A, C}, {B, C}, {A, B, C}. Thus, such conjunctive language isnot generally intended to imply that certain embodiments require atleast one of A, at least one of B, and at least one of C each to bepresent. In addition, unless otherwise noted or contradicted by context,term “plurality” indicates a state of being plural (e.g., “a pluralityof items” indicates multiple items). A plurality is at least two items,but can be more when so indicated either explicitly or by context.Further, unless stated otherwise or otherwise clear from context, phrase“based on” means “based at least in part on” and not “based solely on.”

Operations of processes described herein can be performed in anysuitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearlycontradicted by context. In at least one embodiment, a process such asthose processes described herein (or variations and/or combinationsthereof) is performed under control of one or more computer systemsconfigured with executable instructions and is implemented as code(e.g., executable instructions, one or more computer programs or one ormore applications) executing collectively on one or more processors, byhardware or combinations thereof. In at least one embodiment, code isstored on a computer-readable storage medium, for example, in form of acomputer program comprising a plurality of instructions executable byone or more processors. In at least one embodiment, a computer-readablestorage medium is a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium thatexcludes transitory signals (e.g., a propagating transient electric orelectromagnetic transmission) but includes non-transitory data storagecircuitry (e.g., buffers, cache, and queues) within transceivers oftransitory signals. In at least one embodiment, code (e.g., executablecode or source code) is stored on a set of one or more non-transitorycomputer-readable storage media having stored thereon executableinstructions (or other memory to store executable instructions) that,when executed (i.e., as a result of being executed) by one or moreprocessors of a computer system, cause computer system to performoperations described herein. A set of non-transitory computer-readablestorage media, in at least one embodiment, comprises multiplenon-transitory computer-readable storage media and one or more ofindividual non-transitory storage media of multiple non-transitorycomputer-readable storage media lack all of code while multiplenon-transitory computer-readable storage media collectively store all ofcode. In at least one embodiment, executable instructions are executedsuch that different instructions are executed by differentprocessors—for example, a non-transitory computer-readable storagemedium store instructions and a main central processing unit (“CPU”)executes some of instructions while a graphics processing unit (“GPU”)executes other instructions. In at least one embodiment, differentcomponents of a computer system have separate processors and differentprocessors execute different subsets of instructions.

Accordingly, in at least one embodiment, computer systems are configuredto implement one or more services that singly or collectively performoperations of processes described herein and such computer systems areconfigured with applicable hardware and/or software that enableperformance of operations. Further, a computer system that implements atleast one embodiment of present disclosure is a single device and, inanother embodiment, is a distributed computer system comprising multipledevices that operate differently such that distributed computer systemperforms operations described herein and such that a single device doesnot perform all operations.

Use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”)provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate embodiments ofdisclosure and does not pose a limitation on scope of disclosure unlessotherwise claimed. No language in specification should be construed asindicating any non-claimed element as essential to practice ofdisclosure.

All references, including publications, patent applications, andpatents, cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to sameextent as if each reference were individually and specifically indicatedto be incorporated by reference and were set forth in its entiretyherein.

In description and claims, terms “coupled” and “connected,” along withtheir derivatives, may be used. It should be understood that these termsmay be not intended as synonyms for each other. Rather, in particularexamples, “connected” or “coupled” may be used to indicate that two ormore elements are in direct or indirect physical or electrical contactwith each other. “Coupled” may also mean that two or more elements arenot in direct contact with each other, but yet still co-operate orinteract with each other.

Unless specifically stated otherwise, it may be appreciated thatthroughout specification terms such as “processing,” “computing,”“calculating,” “determining,” or like, refer to action and/or processesof a computer or computing system, or similar electronic computingdevice, that manipulate and/or transform data represented as physical,such as electronic, quantities within computing system's registersand/or memories into other data similarly represented as physicalquantities within computing system's memories, registers or other suchinformation storage, transmission or display devices.

In a similar manner, term “processor” may refer to any device or portionof a device that processes electronic data from registers and/or memoryand transform that electronic data into other electronic data that maybe stored in registers and/or memory. As non-limiting examples,“processor” may be a CPU or a GPU. A “computing platform” may compriseone or more processors. As used herein, “software” processes mayinclude, for example, software and/or hardware entities that performwork over time, such as tasks, threads, and intelligent agents. Also,each process may refer to multiple processes, for carrying outinstructions in sequence or in parallel, continuously or intermittently.Terms “system” and “method” are used herein interchangeably insofar assystem may embody one or more methods and methods may be considered asystem.

In present document, references may be made to obtaining, acquiring,receiving, or inputting analog or digital data into a subsystem,computer system, or computer-implemented machine. Obtaining, acquiring,receiving, or inputting analog and digital data can be accomplished in avariety of ways such as by receiving data as a parameter of a functioncall or a call to an application programming interface. In someimplementations, process of obtaining, acquiring, receiving, orinputting analog or digital data can be accomplished by transferringdata via a serial or parallel interface. In another implementation,process of obtaining, acquiring, receiving, or inputting analog ordigital data can be accomplished by transferring data via a computernetwork from providing entity to acquiring entity. References may alsobe made to providing, outputting, transmitting, sending, or presentinganalog or digital data. In various examples, process of providing,outputting, transmitting, sending, or presenting analog or digital datacan be accomplished by transferring data as an input or output parameterof a function call, a parameter of an application programming interfaceor interprocess communication mechanism.

Although discussion above sets forth example implementations ofdescribed techniques, other architectures may be used to implementdescribed functionality, and are intended to be within scope of thisdisclosure. Furthermore, although specific distributions ofresponsibilities are defined above for purposes of discussion, variousfunctions and responsibilities might be distributed and divided indifferent ways, depending on circumstances.

Furthermore, although subject matter has been described in languagespecific to structural features and/or methodological acts, it is to beunderstood that subject matter claimed in appended claims is notnecessarily limited to specific features or acts described. Rather,specific features and acts are disclosed as exemplary forms ofimplementing the claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A computer-implemented method, comprising:processing a first image using an object detector to identify aplurality of semantic features; identifying a subset of the plurality ofsemantic features in a region of the first image corresponding to afirst object; determining similarity values between the subset ofsemantic features and semantic features of a plurality of unlabeledimages; and selecting, based at least in part upon the similarityvalues, one or more of the unlabeled images as including arepresentation of at least one additional object that is semanticallysimilar to the first object.
 2. The computer-implemented method of claim1, wherein the object detector is implemented using a deep neuralnetwork (DNN).
 3. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, whereinthe one or more unlabeled images are selected based on at least one of:highest similarity values or similarity values above a selectionthreshold.
 4. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein thesimilarity values are determined using a tensor dot-product basedtemplate matching algorithm.
 5. The computer-implemented method of claim1, further comprising: identifying a second subset of the plurality ofsemantic features in a second region of the first image corresponding toa second object; and determining second similarity values between thesecond subset of semantic features and the plurality of unlabeledimages, wherein the one or more unlabeled images are further capable ofbeing selected based at least in part upon the second similarity values.6. The computer-implemented method of claim 5, wherein the second objectis of a same object type or a different object type than the firstobject.
 7. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, furthercomprising: generating a semantic feature patch using the subset of theplurality of semantic features in a region of the first imagecorresponding to a first object.
 8. The computer-implemented method ofclaim 7, wherein determining similarity values includes performing atleast one of: one or more patchwise cosine similarity evaluations forthe semantic feature patch with respect to the plurality of unlabeledimages or one or more patchwise Euclidian distance determinations forthe semantic feature patch with respect to the plurality of unlabeledimages.
 9. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, furthercomprising: adding the one or more selected images to a training dataset containing the first image, the training data set for use intraining at least one deep neural network.
 10. The computer-implementedmethod of claim 9, wherein the deep neural network is trained torecognize objects in captured image data for an autonomous vehicleapplication.
 11. A system, comprising: at least one processor; andmemory including instructions that, when executed by the at least oneprocessor, cause the system to: select, from a set of training images, afirst image including one or more objects of interest; identify, in thefirst image, one or more regions of interest corresponding to the one ormore objects of interest; generate one or more feature templatescorresponding to sematic features extracted from the one or more regionsof interest; determine similarity values between the one or more featuretemplates and semantic features of a plurality of unlabeled images; andselect, based at least in part upon the similarity values, one or moreof the unlabeled images as including a representation of at least oneadditional object that is semantically similar to at least one of theone or more objects of interest in the first image.
 12. The system ofclaim 11, wherein the instructions when executed further cause thesystem to: identify one or more bounding areas defining the one or moreregions of interest, the sematic features for a respective semantictemplate being depicted inside a respective bounding area.
 13. Thesystem of claim 11, wherein the first image includes a plurality ofobjects of interest of one or more object class.
 14. The system of claim11, wherein determining the similarity values includes performing atleast one of: one or more cosine similarity evaluations for the one ormore semantic feature templates with respect to the plurality ofunlabeled images or one or more Euclidian distance determinations forthe one or more semantic feature templates with respect to the pluralityof unlabeled images.
 15. The system of claim 11, wherein the similarityvalues are determined using a tensor dot-product based template matchingalgorithm.
 16. The system of claim 11, wherein the system comprises atleast one of: a system for performing graphical rendering operations; asystem for performing simulation operations; a system for performingsimulation operations to test or validate autonomous machineapplications; a system for performing deep learning operations; a systemimplemented using an edge device; a system incorporating one or moreVirtual Machines (VMs); a system implemented at least partially in adata center; or a system implemented at least partially using cloudcomputing resources.
 17. A non-transitory computer-readable storagemedium including instructions that, when executed, cause one or moreprocessors to: process a first image to identify a plurality of semanticfeatures; identify a subset of the plurality of semantic features in aregion of the first image corresponding to a first object; determinesimilarity values between the subset of semantic features and semanticfeatures of a plurality of unlabeled images; and select, based at leastin part upon the similarity values, one or more of the unlabeled imagesas including a representation of at least one additional object that issemantically similar to the first object.
 18. The non-transitorycomputer-readable storage medium of claim 17, wherein the instructionswhen executed further cause one or more processors to: use the one ormore unlabeled images to train a deep neural network (DNN).
 19. Thenon-transitory computer-readable storage medium of claim 17, wherein thesimilarity values are cosine similarity values.
 20. The non-transitorycomputer-readable storage medium of claim 17, wherein the similarityvalues are determined using a tensor dot-product based template matchingalgorithm.